Memory

Goal  How do we encode information for memory? Learning Target: Describe memory in terms of information processing, and explain the encoding process.

The Memory Process Three step process…. Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system. Storage: The retention of encoded material over time. Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage.

Three Box Model of Memory

Info-Processing Automatic Effortful Parallel processing (brain does many things at once) Remembering space, time, frequency, well-learned info Effortful Rehearsal/repetition

Encoding Process Encoding Effortful Automatic

Ebbinghaus Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables TUV ZOF GEK WAV the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2 Spacing effect – memory is better for info learned over time Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve

Encoding Information Serial Position Effect = Primacy Effect – better remember items earliest in a series Recency Effect – better memory for items at the end of a series

The ways we can encode… Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images. Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words. Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning.

Encoding Imagery Mnemonics mental pictures a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding Mnemonics memory aids especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices Acronyms Method of Loci Peg-word system

Encoding Chunking organizing items into familiar, manageable units like horizontal organization--1776149218121941 often occurs automatically use of acronyms HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream

Encoding: Chunking Organized information is more easily recalled

Encoding Hierarchies (Semantic Networks) complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories Encoding (automatic or effortful) Imagery (visual Encoding) Meaning (semantic Organization Chunks Hierarchies

Goal Describe memory in terms of information processing, and distinguish among sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.

Storage: Sensory Memory Iconic memory Brief sensory memory of images (tenths of a second) Echoic memory Brief sensory memory of sounds (2-4 secs)

Storage: Short-Term (STM)/ Working Memory Limited duration & capacity Magical number (7+/-2 items) Events are encoded visually, acoustically or semantically. We recall digits better than letters. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 3 6 9 12 15 18 Time in seconds between presentation of contestants and recall request (no rehearsal allowed) Percentage who recalled consonants

Storage: Long-Term Memory (LTM) How does storage work? Karl Lashley (1950) rats learned maze, lesioned cortexes, retested memory  still partial memory Synaptic changes Long-term Potentiation increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation

Storage: Long-Term Memory (LTM) Strong emotions make for stronger memories = FLASHBULB MEMORIES - Not necessarily more accurate Mood-congruent memory  remember when in same mood as learned/rehearsed State-dependent memory  remember when in same conscious state as learned/ rehearsed

Storage: Long-Term Memory Subsystems Types of long-term memories Explicit (declarative) With conscious recall Implicit (nondeclarative) Without conscious Facts-general knowledge (“semantic memory”) Personally experienced events (“episodic Skills-motor and cognitive Dispositions- classical and operant conditioning effects

Storage: Long-Term Memory MRI scan of hippocampus (in red) Hippocampus

Retrieval Recall v. recognition tasks Relearning - how much less time it takes to learn material the second time Priming - activation of unconscious associations in memory

Retrieval: Context Effects Godden and Baddeley (1975) 10 20 30 40 Water/ land Land/ water Different contexts for hearing and recall Same contexts for hearing and recall Percentage of words recalled

Retrieval: Context & Mood Déjà Vu (French)-”already seen” cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience Mood-congruent memory State-dependent memory

What is the color of the top stripe of the American flag? Most wooden pencils are not round. How many sides do they typically have? In what hand does the Statue of Liberty hold her torch? The White House is pictured on the back of a $20 bill. What is the on the back of a $10 bill? $5 bill? $1 bill? What four words besides “In God We Trust” appear on most U.S. coins?

Forgetting: Encoding Failure Info never gets to LTM (not attended to or rehearsed) External events Sensory memory Short- term Long- Attention Encoding failure leads to forgetting

Forgetting: Storage Decay 1 2 3 4 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 Time in days since learning list Percentage of list retained when relearning Ebbinghaus forgetting curve over 30 days-- initially rapid, then levels off with time

Forgetting: Storage Decay The forgetting curve for Spanish learned in school Retention drops, then levels off 1 3 5 9½ 14½ 25 35½ 49½ Time in years after completion of Spanish course 100% 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Percentage of original vocabulary retained

Forgetting: Retrieval Failure Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory External events Attention Encoding Retrieval failure leads to forgetting Retrieval Sensory memory Short-term Long-term

Forgetting: Interference Proactive (forward-acting) interference  old info disrupts memory of new info Retroactive (backward-acting) interference  new info disrupts memory of old info

Forgetting Forgetting can occur at any memory stage As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it Repression?

Forgetting- Interference Motivated Forgetting (retrieval failure) people unknowingly revise memories Repression defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Amnesia Infantile amnesia: difficult to remember vivid memories from before ages 2-3 Dissociative amnesia: inability to remember info due to psychological trauma

Amnesia Retrograde amnesia: inability to remember info before a trauma Anterograde amnesia: inability to remember info after a trauma

What kind of forgetting? Ellen can’t recall the reasons for the Webster-Ashburton Treaty because she was daydreaming in class the day it was discussed. Encoding failure Rufus hates his job at Taco Heaven and is always forgetting when he is schedule to work. Retrieval failure (motivated forgetting)

What kind of forgetting? Ray’s new assistant in the shipping department is named Jason Timberlake. Ray keeps calling him Justin, mixing him up with the singer Justin Timberlake. Proactive interference Tania studied history on Sunday morning and sociology on Sunday evening. It’s Monday, and she’s struggling with her history test because she keeps mixing up prominent historians with influential sociologists. Retroactive interference

What kind of forgetting? Mark was in a near fatal car accident on his way to work. At the hospital, he cannot remember what he was doing that morning up until the accident (stopping for coffee, calling his wife), but still can form new memories. Retrograde amnesia Ally was sexually assaulted, and when reporting the event has trouble remembering what happened after the assault (where she went, who she spoke to). Anterograde amnesia

Memory Construction We filter information and fill in missing pieces Misinformation Effect incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event Source Amnesia attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution)

Memory Construction Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned Depiction of actual accident Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” Memory construction Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned

Memory Construction Memories of Abuse False Memory Syndrome Repressed or Constructed? Child sexual abuse does occur Some adults do actually forget such episodes False Memory Syndrome condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists

Memory Construction Most people can agree on the following: Injustice happens Incest happens Forgetting happens Recovered memories are commonplace Memories recovered under hypnosis or drugs are especially unreliable Memories of things happening before age 3 are unreliable Memories, whether false or real, are upsetting

Improve Your Memory Study repeatedly to boost recall Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material Make material personally meaningful Use mnemonic devices associate with peg words--something already stored make up story chunk--acronyms

Improve Your Memory Activate retrieval cues--mentally recreate situation and mood Recall events while they are fresh-- before you encounter misinformation Minimize interference Test your own knowledge rehearse determine what you do not yet know