Psychology in Action (8e) PowerPoint  Lecture Notes Presentation Chapter 7: Thinking, Language, and Intelligence

Lecture Overview Thinking Language Intelligence The Intelligence Controversy

Chapter Introduction Thinking, language, and intelligence are often studied under the larger topic of cognition (mental activities involved in acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using knowledge).

Thinking Cognitive building blocks. The processes of thinking are distributed throughout the brain, especially in the frontal lobe

Cognition Cognition refers to the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. Cognitive psychologists study these activities including the logical and illogical ways we solve problems and make decisions.

Concept Formation To think about the countless events, objects, and people in our world, we organize them into mental groupings called concepts. This is one of the basic functions of the human mind We create mental hierarchies of groupings by clustering them into categories based on their similarities, and then subdividing those categories into increasingly smaller and more detailed units.

Concept Formation Complex concepts, or schemas, are ways of looking at the world that organize our past experiences and provide a framework for understanding our future experiences. We often think in images as well as words. We use mental, or cognitive, maps in giving directions, in finding an alternate route to school, and in moving around our home when the lights are out, for example.

Concept Formation Although we form some concepts by definition—for example, a triangle has three sides—more often we form a concept by developing a prototype, a mental image or best example of a particular category. For example, a robin more closely resembles our “bird” category than does a goose. The more closely objects match our prototype of a concept, the more readily we recognize them as examples of a concept.

Thinking—Three Components (Mental Images) 1. Mental Images (mental representations of a previously stored sensory experience, including visual, auditory, etc.)

Thinking—Three Components (Mental Images Continued) Why are the two forms in (a) the same, yet the two forms in (b) are different? Solving this problem requires mental manipulation of the mental images.

Thinking—Three Components (Mental Images Continued) Mental Image Solution: To solve the problem rotate one of the objects in (b) and then compare the rotated image with the other object to see whether they match or not.

Thinking—Three Components (Concepts) Concepts (mental representation of a group or category that shares similar characteristics) How do we learn concepts? a. Artificial concepts are formed by logical, specific rules. b. Natural concepts/prototypes are formed by our experiences in everyday life. c. Hierarchies help us group concepts into subcategories within broader categories.

Thinking—Three Components An Example of Hierarchies

Thinking—Three Components (Language) 3. Language (a form of communication using sounds and symbols combined according to specified rules)

Thinking—Problem Solving Step 1: Preparation- identifying, separating, and defining. Step 2: Production- generating possible solutions (hypotheses) by using algorithms and heuristics. Step 3: Evaluation- judging hypotheses in Step 2 against the criteria in Step 1.

Algorithms & Heuristics as Problem-Solving Strategies We approach some problems through trial and error, attempting various solutions until stumbling upon one that works. For other problems we may follow a methodical rule or step-by-step procedure called an algorithm. Because algorithms can be laborious, we often rely instead on simple strategies called heuristics. (e.g., “I” before “E” except after “C”.)

Algorithms & Heuristics as Problem-Solving Strategies Speedier than algorithms, heuristics are also more error-prone. Sometimes, however, we are unaware of using any problem-solving strategy; the answer just comes to us as a sudden flash of inspiration or insight!

Thinking—Five Key Barriers to Problem Solving 1. Mental Sets (persistence in using strategies that have worked in the past) Using no more than four lines, can you connect all nine dots without lifting your pencil from the paper?

Thinking—Five Key Barriers to Problem Solving (Mental Sets Continued) To overcome mental sets you must “think outside the box”—literally!

Thinking—Five Key Barriers to Problem Solving 2. Functional Fixedness (thinking of an object as only functioning in its usual way) Can you use these supplies to mount the candle on the wall so that it can be lit in a normal way without toppling over?

Thinking—Five Key Barriers to Problem Solving (Functional Fixedness Continued) To overcome functional fixedness, you must think of the matchbox, tacks, and candle all functioning in new ways.

Thinking—Five Key Barriers to Problem Solving 3. Confirmation Bias (preferring information that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs, while ignoring contradictory evidence) 4. Availability Heuristic (judging the likelihood of an event based on how readily available other instances are in memory)

Thinking—Five Key Barriers to Problem Solving 5. Representativeness Heuristic [estimating the probability of something based on how well the circumstances match (or represent) a previous prototype] When people overestimate the dangers of flying is it an example of the availability heuristic or the representativeness heuristic?

Thinking—Creativity Three elements of creativity: Originality Fluency Creativity (ability to produce valued outcomes in a novel way) Three elements of creativity: Originality Fluency Flexibility

Thinking—Creativity Divergent thinking (ability to produce many alternatives or ideas) is linked to creativity (e.g., reordering these letters “grevenidt” to form many new words). Convergent thinking (attempting to find one correct answer) is linked to conventional, non-creative thinking (e.g., 2 + 2 = ?).

Thinking—Creativity Want to test your creativity? Arrange 10 coins in the configuration shown here. Then, by only moving two coins, create two rows of 6 coins.

Thinking—Creativity Can you see how this is a creative solution to the 10 coin problem?

Language: Three Building Blocks 1. Phoneme (smallest unit of speech or sound) 2. Morpheme (smallest meaningful unit of language) 3. Grammar (rules specifying how phonemes, morphemes, words, and phrases should be combined to express thoughts) Syntax (rules for word order) Semantics (system of using words to create meaning)

Language Development Prelinguistic Stage (crying, cooing, and babbling) Linguistic Stage (single-utterances, telegraphic speech, and learning the rules of grammar)

Theories of Language Development The Nature Perspective: language is an inborn capacity and develops primarily by maturation. Chomsky’s language acquisition device (LAD) The Nurture Perspective: language develops from a complex system of rewards, punishments, and imitation

Intelligence Intelligence (global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment) Intelligence is a hypothetical, abstract construct.

What is Intelligence? Intelligence is generally considered to be the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and adapt to new situations. Psychologists debate whether intelligence is one general ability or several specific abilities. More recently, some theorists have expanded the definition of intelligence to include social intelligence, especially emotional intelligence.

Intelligence Intelligence is necessary for creativity, beyond that level, the correlation is weak. Psychologists have linked people’s intelligence to brain anatomy and functioning as well as to cognitive processing speed.

What Is Intelligence? Historical views of intelligence: 1. Single ability or general factor called “g” (Spearman) 2. Multiple abilities (Thurstone and Guilford) 3. Single ability with two types of g, fluid and crystallized intelligence (Cattell) 4. Multiple abilities (Gardner and Sternberg)

Intelligence Models Gardner Sternberg

Four Aspects of Emotional Intelligence Distinct from academic intelligence is emotional intelligence. The four components of emotional intelligence: the ability to perceive emotions (to recognize them in faces, music, and stories), to understand emotions (to predict them and how they change and blend), to manage emotions (to know how to express them in varied situations), and to use emotions to enable adaptive or creative thinking.

Four Aspects of Emotional Intelligence Those who are emotionally smart often succeed in careers, marriages, and parenting where other academically smarter (but emotionally less intelligent) people fail. Critics of the idea of emotional intelligence argue that we stretch the idea of intelligence too far when we apply it to emotion.

Creativity and Intelligence In general, people with high intelligence scores do well on creativity tests. But beyond a score of about 120, the correlation between intelligence scores and creativity disappears. Studies suggest five other components of creativity: expertise, imaginative thinking skills, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, and a creative environment.

Creativity and Intelligence The brain regions supporting the convergent thinking tested by intelligence tests (requiring a single correct answer) differ from those supporting the divergent thinking that imagines multiple solutions to a problem (such as words beginning with the letter s).

Intelligence and Brain Anatomy The direction of the relationship between brain size and intelligence remains unclear. Larger brain size may enable greater intelligence but it is also possible that greater intelligence leads to experiences that exercise the brain and build more connections, thus increase its size.

Correlations Between Perceptual Speed, Neural Processing Speed, and Intelligence. People who score high on intelligence tests tend to retrieve information from memory more quickly. Research also suggests that the correlation between intelligence score and the speed of taking in information tends to be about +.4 to +.5. Those who perceive quickly are especially likely to score higher on tests based on perceptual rather than verbal problem solving.

Correlations Between Perceptual Speed, Neural Processing Speed, and Intelligence. The brain waves of highly intelligent people register a simple stimulus such as a flash of light more quickly and with greater complexity. The evoked brain response also tends to be slightly faster when people with high intelligence rather than low intelligence scores perform a simple task, such as pushing a button when an X appears on the screen.

Correlations Between Perceptual Speed, Neural Processing Speed, and Intelligence. As yet, psychologists have no firm idea of why fast reactions on simple tasks should predict intelligence test performance.

Measuring Intelligence Stanford-Binet and Wechsler most widely used individual intelligence tests. Both tests compute an intelligence quotient (IQ), which compares the deviation of a person’s test score to norms for that person’s age group. Original version of Stanford-Binet (IQ = MA/CA x 100)

Measuring Intelligence— The Normal Distribution of IQ Scores

Measuring Intelligence— Sample Wechsler Tests

Measuring Intelligence Three scientific standards for psychological tests: Standardization establishes norms and uniform procedures for giving and scoring a test. Reliability is a measure of the consistency and stability of test scores over time. Validity is the ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure.

The Intelligence Controversy—Extremes in Intelligence Mental Retardation (IQs of 70 and below) Mental Giftedness (IQs of 135 and above)

The Intelligence Controversy: Explaining Differences Is it the brain? All mental activity (including intelligence) results from neural activity in the brain. Is it genetic or environmental influences? Heredity and environment are important, inseparable factors in intellectual development.

An Example of a “Brain” Test for Intelligence An Example of a “Brain” Test for Intelligence? Which “leg” of the drawing is longer (a) or (b)? When images are quickly flashed, the amount of time someone needs to make a correct choice may reveal something about intelligence.

An Example of “Genetic Vs. Environmental” Influences on Intelligence

The Intelligence Controversy: Are IQ Tests Culturally Biased? Some ethnic groups score differently on IQ tests, but there are numerous contributing factors, including stereotype threat.

The Genetic Contribution to Individual Intelligence To say that the heritability of intelligence is 50 percent does not mean that half of an individual’s intelligence is inherited. Rather it means that we can attribute to heredity 50 percent of the variation of intelligence among those studied.

Figure 11.9 Intelligence: Nature and nurture Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers

Environmental Influences on Individual Intelligence Studies of twins, family members, and adopted children also provide evidence for environmental influences on intelligence. The intelligence test scores of fraternal twins raised together are more similar that those of other siblings, and the scores of identical twins raised apart are less similar than the scores of identical twins raised together.

Environmental Influences on Individual Intelligence Studies of children reared in extremely neglectful or enriched environments also indicate that life experiences significantly influence intelligence test scores. For example, research indicates that schooling and intelligence contribute to each other (and that both enhance later income).

Figure 11.11 Group differences and environmental impact Myers: Psychology, Eighth Edition Copyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers

Ethnic Similarities and Differences in Intelligence Test Scores African-Americans average about 10 points lower than white Americans on intelligence tests. European New Zealanders outscore native Maori New Zealanders, Israeli Jews outscore Israeli Arabs, and most Japanese outscore the stigmatized Japanese minority. Research suggests that environmental differences are largely responsible for these group differences.

Ethnic Similarities and Differences in Intelligence Test Scores Consider: (1) genetics research indicates that the races are remarkably alike under the skin; (2) race is not a neatly defined biological category; (3) Asian students outperform North American students on math achievement and aptitude tests;

Ethnic Similarities and Differences in Intelligence Test Scores Consider: (4) intelligence test performance of today’s better-fed, better-educated, and more test-prepared population exceeds that of the 1930s population by the same margin that the score of the average White today exceeds that of the average Black;

Ethnic Similarities and Differences in Intelligence Test Scores Consider: (5) white and black infants tend to score equally well on tests measuring preferences for looking at novel stimuli—a predictor of future intelligence; and (6) in different eras, different ethnic groups have experienced periods of remarkable achievement.

Gender Differences in Abilities Although gender similarities far outnumber gender differences, we find the differences in abilities more interesting. Research indicates that, compared to boys, girls are better spellers, are more verbally fluent, are better at locating objects and are more sensitive to touch, taste, and color.

Gender Differences in Abilities Boys are more likely than girls to be underachievers, and outperform girls at math problem solving but underperform them in math computation. Women detect emotions more easily than do men.

Biases in Intelligence Tests Intelligence tests are “biased” in the sense that they are sensitive to performance differences caused by cultural experience. However, tests are not biased in that they predict as accurately for one group as they do for another. For example, the predictive validity is roughly the same for blacks and whites and for rich and poor.

Biases in Intelligence Tests Stereotype threat is a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. The phenomenon sometimes appears in intelligence testing among African-Americans and among women of all colors.