© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Facets of Academics Prof. D. M. Dhamdhere CSE Department, IIT Bombay All original content © 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Facets of Academics 1.The educational process 2.Defining knowledge 3.How should we learn? 4.Cognitive load theory 5.Cognitive theory of multimedia learning 6.Metacognition 7.Critical thinking 8.Tools for knowledge representation and thinking 9.Active Learning 10.Learning Styles 0

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere The Educational Process Value the educational process … not just the degree ? 1-1

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere The Educational Process What is education? What are its goals? –Socrates Education is the kindling of a flame, not the filling of a vessel –Martin Luther King Jr. Intelligence plus character---that is the goal of true education –C. S. Lewis Education without values, as useful as it is, seems rather to make man a more clever devil –Carl Rogers The only person who is educated is the one who has learned how to learn and change 1-2

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere The Educational Process Goals of the educational process (source: Dictionary.com) –Impart knowledge –Develop the powers of reasoning & judgment –Prepare intellectually for a mature life 1-3

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Defining knowledge The word “knowledge” of common parlance has several connotations See what famous persons have said about knowledge: –Albert Einstein Information is not knowledge Any fool can know. The point is to understand –T. S. Eliot Where is all the knowledge we lost with information? –Alfred Tennyson Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers 2-1

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy of Learning Domains 2-2

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy of Learning Domains Keywords (verbs) of categories of the Cognitive Domain Category Verbs describing activities in category Creating Combine, design, generate Evaluating Appraise, assess, justify Analyzing Compare, contrast, separate … Applying Compute, construct, predict … Understanding Comprehend, explain, summarize … Remembering Define, describe, identify Different verbs can be used to describe Internet activities, e.g., bookmarking, annotating. Complexity 2-3

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere How Should We Learn? Vygotsky –Language and social interaction are fundamental means of education –Learning occurs just above a learner’s current competence level Ausubel –Learners associate new knowledge with existing concepts in their mental structures Wittrock –Make students responsible for building relations between new subject-matter and own knowledge Merrill –Provide cognitive structure for prior and new knowledge 3-1

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere How Do We Learn? There are several theories of learning We describe Gagne’s learning theory –Gagne defined a “learning outcome” as change in behaviour of a learner due to a learning experience Learning behaviour is determined by state of learning of a learner Instructor provides stimulii that result in changes in the state of learning A learner shows “improved bahaviour” after learning 3-2

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Gagne’s Theory of Learning Internal conditions External Condition (stimulus) Response is a change in internal conditions Stimulus-response associations (realize learning) New Behaviour of learner Old Behaviour of learner Learning outcome Learner’s mind Learner before learning Learner after learning Events of instruction Create Cause Represent prior learning 3-3

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Gagne’s Theory of Learning Three of the five categories of learning outcomes Verbal information (“Knowing that”: Declarative knowledge) -Recall of organized bodies of knowledge -Learning outcome: Ability to meaningfully reconstruct and state in sentences Intellectual skills (“Knowing how to”: Procedural knowledge) -Nos, language, concepts about environment -Learning outcome: Applying simple rules to a class of situations Cognitive strategies (Techniques of thinking, analyzing, solving) -Executive control processes: when and how to use intellectual skills & decl. knowledge -Learning outcome: Problem solving, learning, thinking Complexity Verbs: Arrange, identify, recognize, recall Classify, identify, select, apply, schedule Argue, assess, compare, predict 3-4

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) Cognitive load theory characterizes the mental effort involved in learning activities 4-1

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Cognitive Load Theory Cognitive load theory integrates our knowledge of cognitive structures and instructional design principles Human cognitive architecture has a long-term memory, a working memory, and short-term sensory memories –Most human cognitive activity is determined by information held in long-term memory This information has been learnt in order to cognitively adapt to the environment; it is in the form of schemas Learning is defined as alteration in the long-term memory –Cognitive information is actually processed in working memory It results in formation of schemas 4-2

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Cognitive Load Theory Figure from Novak, 2006 Stores knowledge in the form of schemas Schema categorizes multiple information elements as a single element (e.g., objects & relationships) Can store only 7±2 elements for only a few seconds Schemas must be formed and transferred to Long-term memory Used during Cognitive activity Use may be automatic Non-schema data is searched randomly In absence of knowledge, processing is by trial-and-error 4-3

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Cognitive Load Theory Understanding occurs when all relevant info items can be processed simultaneously in working memory (WM) –If number of information items required exceeds the size of working memory Schemas must be formed; it reduces the number of items Forming schemas by trial-and-error consumes time; it delays understanding Imperfect understanding occurs if schemas cannot be formed in time 4-4

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning Cognitive load has three components –Intrinsic cognitive load is the cognitive load due to natural complexity of information processing in a subject –Germane cognitive load is caused by schema formation while learning –Extraneous cognitive load is caused by the manner in which information is presented to a learner. For example, Problem solving causes large extraneous load because it causes heavy load on working memory that interferes with schema forming Means-ends analysis causes large extraneous load 5-1

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning Spoken words Pictures Written words Integration of verbal and pictorial models with each other & with prior knowledge Also called propositional model 5-2

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Design of Multimedia Instruction Combining text and pictures –Their manner of presentation should facilitate integration –It can happen if text and pictures are Semantically related (coherence condition) Presented closely together (contiguity condition) –Temporal contiguity : At the same time –Spatial contiguity : Visually close to one another Lack of spatial contiguity causes split-attention condition, which increases the cognitive effort Printed words appearing close to a picture reduce the split-attention effect 5-3

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Design of Multimedia Instruction Cognitive Load Reduction in MMI (Mayer, Moreno, 2003) –Three kinds of cognitive demands Essential processing –Making sense of the presented material Incidental processing –Not essential, but required by the design of learning task, e.g., processing background music, animation, etc. Representational processing –Processes aimed at holding a mental representation in working memory over a period of time, e.g., in case of split-attention 5-4

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Metacognition* Metacognition is “thinking about thinking”, i.e., thinking about one’s own thinking processes such as –Study skills –Memory capabilities –Ability to monitor learning Source: Wikipedia 6-1

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Metacognition Metacognition has 2 components: 1.Metacognitive knowledge: Knowledge about cognitive processes, which can be used to control cognitive processes. Flavell (1979) divided it into 3 kinds of knowledge Knowledge about Person variables - Knowledge of how humans learn and process info - Knowledge about one’s own learning process Knowledge about Task variables - Knowledge about nature of task and its processing demands Metacognitive strategies - Sequential processes used by a person to control cognitive activities - Knowledge about when and where to use them 2. Metacognitive regulation: Use M. knowledge to reach cognitive goal Declarative knowledge Procedural knowledge Conditional knowledge 6-2

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Metacognition Metacognitive regulation: Contains 3 skills –Planning: Appropriate selection of strategies and correct allocation of resources –Monitoring: Be aware of one’s comprehensive and task performance –Evaluating: Appraise the final product of a task and efficiency of its performance. Re-evaluate strategies if needed 6-3

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Powers of Reasoning and Judgment Rene Descartes –I think; therefore I am Confucius –He who learns but does not think, is lost! Thomas A Edison –Five percent of the people think; ten percent of the people think they think; and the other eighty-five percent would rather die than think Stephen King –The thought process can never be complete without articulation 7-1

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere How Should We Think? We should use purposeful and reflective judgment in deciding what to believe and what to do in response to –Observations –Experience –Verbal or written expressions –Arguments It is called critical thinking 7-2

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Critical Thinking Example: How to obtain answer to a question by using web resources? –Analyze the information available from multiple sources –Validate the information from each source, rejecting unreliable/illogical information –Correlate information from various sources to make a cohesive whole Take care of differences in terminology used in various sources –Express the answer effectively 7-3

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Critical Thinking A critical thinker* –Raises vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely –Gathers and assesses relevant information –Comes to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions –Thinks open-mindedly about alternatives –Communicates effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems; without being unduly influenced by others A critical thinker examines and improves own thinking –It is a portable skill; it helps in all aspects of life *Source: Wikipedia 7-4

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Tools for Representing Knowledge and Thinking Many issues can be tackled effectively if knowledge can be represented –Planning a course or curriculum –Checking whether a learner has prerequisites or prior learning –Detecting misconceptions in a learner’s mind –Evaluating whether learning has occurred in a course Represent knowledge before and after a course and compare Two widely used tools are –Concept Maps –Vee Diagrams 8-1

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Concept Map Figure from Novak, 2006 Concept map for “Why seasons occur” A free online concept mapping tool: IHMC CmapTools 8-2

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Vee Diagram The Vee diagram is based on the view that “knowledge is constructed” and not “discovered” –Construction of new knowledge begins with our observations of events or objects through the concepts we already possess –We make records of our observations and use them while constructing knowledge Thus, concepts, events or objects, and observations are key elements of knowledge construction A focus question determines the scope of the inquiry 8-3

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Vee Diagram Given info Methods guided by stated principles Prior knowledge 1 2 Path 1 enables thinking based on events/objects in focus Path 2 enables construction of an answer 8-4

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Active Learning Quotes related to active learning –Benjamin Franklin Tell me and I forget, teach me and I may remember, involve me and I learn –Phil Collins In learning you will teach, and in teaching you will learn –Will Rogers A man only learns in two ways, one by reading, and the other by association with smarter people 9-1

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Active Learning In active learning, learners are responsible for their own learning. –Typically, they are expected to achieve learning by actively participating it learning activities –It requires learners to have a background in the topic Some active learning techniques –Think-pair-share: Learners first work in pairs, and then share their results with the class –Learning by teaching: Learners take turns teaching to one another –Collaborative learning groups 9-2

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Active Learning 9-3 Source: Internet

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Learning Styles The learning style of a learner indicates how the learner prefers to receive and process information There are several dimensions to the learning style* –Perception: What type of information is preferred by a learner? –Input: Which external channel (visual / audio) is preferred for receiving information? –Organization: What kind of organization of material (facts / principles) is preferred? –Processing: How does the learner prefer to process information? –Understanding: How does the learner progress toward understanding? * Felder and Silverman, Engg Edu

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Learning Styles What is your style? 10-2

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Learning Styles Perception: Sensing and Intuitive learners –Sensing learners like observing, gathering data through senses Sensing learners like facts, data, and experimentation –Intuitive learners like speculation, imagination, hunches Intuitive learners prefer principles and theories They like symbols and can translate them into their meanings Input: Visual and auditory learners –Visual learners remember best what they see Pictures, diagrams, films, demonstrations –Auditory learners remember sounds, words –Most persons are visual learners 10-3

© 2013 D. M. Dhamdhere Learning Styles Organization: Inductive learners proceed from data to generalities; deductive learners go in opposite direction –Inductive style is the natural human learning style –Deductive style is natural teaching style for technical subjects Processing: Active and reflective learners –Active learners work well in group –Reflective learners work better by themselves or in pairs Understanding: Sequential and global learners –Sequential learners can learn material as it is presented –Global learners understand in fits and starts –Sequential learners: good in analysis, global learners: synthesis 10-4