Chapter 1 The Ancient Near East: The First Civilizations

Timeline

The First Humans Hominids Australopithecines (3-4 million years ago; simple stone tools; limited to Africa) Homo Erectus (1.5 million years ago; larger, more varied tools; moves into Europe and Asia) Homo Sapiens (“wise human being”) Neanderthals, (c. 100,000 – 30,000 years ago) Neander Valley in Germany, other parts of Europe and Middle East More advanced stone tools; burial of the dead Homo Sapiens Sapiens, (c. 200,000 B.C. – Present) “Wise, wise human being” Replaced Neanderthals Spread throughout the world

Map 1.1: The Spread of Homo Sapiens Sapiens

The Hunter Gatherers of the Old Stone Age Paleolithic Age, (c. 2.5 million years ago – 10,000 years ago) Hunting and Gathering Nomadic Bands (20 – 30 people) Division of labor between men and women Discovery of Fire (c. 500,000 B.C.) Source of light and heat; cooking of food Cultural activities notably cave paintings

Neolithic Revolution (c. 10,000 – 4000 B.C.) Agricultural Revolution Move from hunting and gathering toward systematic growing of food Consequences of Neolithic Revolution Permanent Settlements (Çatal Hüyük) Trade Specialized Division of Labor Improved Tools Domestication of Animals Development of Writing Use of Metals Copper + Tin = Bronze Bronze Age (c B.C. – c B.C.)

The Emergence of Civilization Six Characteristics of Civilization Urban Focus – Cities become very important Distinct Religious Structure (gods; priests) Political and Military Structures (bureaucracy; armies) Social structure based on economic power Writing – Record keeping Artistic and Intellectual Activity

Civilization in Mesopotamia The City State of Ancient Mesopotamia Begins at Sumer (c B.C.) City States (Eridu, Ur, Uruk, Umma, Lagash) Temples to the gods / Ziggurats Theocracy (gods rule the cities through priests) Kingship (divine in Origin) Economy primarily agricultural Some trade Three Major Social Groups Nobles, Commoners, and Slaves

Map 1.2: The Ancient Near East

Empires in Ancient Mesopotamia Early Dynastic Age (c – 2340 B.C.) Instability; warfare between city states Akkadian Empire (c – c B.C.) Sargon Third Dynasty of Ur (c – 2000 B.C.) Amorites Hammurabi (1792 – 1750 B.C.)

Code of Hammurabi 282 Laws Strict Justice / Severe Penalties Principle of Retaliation Responsibility of Public Officials Consumer Protections Agriculture and Trade Family / Marriage / Domestic Affairs

Culture of Mesopotamia The Importance of Religion City State linked to god or goddess. Epic of Gilgamesh Polytheistic (belief in many gods) Human beings subservient to gods Divination Cultivation of New Arts and Sciences Writing, (c B.C.) cuneiform = “wedge-shaped” Record Keeping; Past Events; Literature Mathematics Number System based on 60 Geometry Astronomy

The Development of Cuneiform

Egyptian Civilization: “The Gift of the Nile” Nile River Annual, predictable flooding Food Surplus Transportation Security Changelessness

Mud and thatch wall of Egyptian farmhouse in the Nile River Valley.

Map 1.3: Ancient Egypt

The Old and Middle Kingdoms Upper and Lower Egypt United (c B.C.) Old Kingdom (c – 2125) Prosperity and Stability Pharaohs (Divine Kings) Absolute Rulers Ma’at Bureaucracy – Vizier Nomes (Provinces) First Intermediate Period (c – 2055 B.C.) Middle Kingdom (c – 1650 B.C.) Changing Role of Pharaoh

Society and Economy in Ancient Egypt Organized Hierarchically Pharaoh at the top Upper Class (Nobles and Priests) Merchants and Artisans Trade Lower Class; Serfs Majority of population Bound to land Tax payers Military service; labor force

Culture of Egypt Spiritual Life and Egyptian Society Religion Sun Cult (Atum; Re) Osiris, Isis, and Seth Book of the Dead Pyramids City of the Dead Physical Body / Spiritual Body (Ka) Mummification Great Pyramid at Giza (c B.C.) Art and Writing Functional / Integral in ritual Art Formulaic Writing (Hieroglyphs)

Osiris as Judge of the Dead

Chaos and a New Order: The New Kingdom Second Intermediate Period (c – c B.C.) Hyksos Invasion Bronze Age New Methods of Warfare New Kingdom (c – 1085 B.C.) Militarism and Imperialism Amenhotep IV (c – 1347 B.C.) Worship of Aten (god of the sun disk) Tutankhamen (1347 – 1338 B.C.) Restoration of old gods Rameses II (c – 1213 B.C.) Decline (after 1085 B.C.)

Nubians in Egypt

Life in Ancient Egypt Marriage Husband – master of the house Wife – head of the household; education of children Women Labor Hatshepsut Arranged Marriages Reproduction Love Divorce allowed Adultery strictly prohibited

On the Fringes of Civilization Farming established in Europe (4000 B.C.) Megalithic Structures Built around 4000 B.C. Most famous is Stonehenge in England Required coordination of labor for construction

The Impact of the Indo-Europeans Indo-European Languages Homeland Migrations (c B.C.)

Table 1.2: Some Indo-European Languages

Map 1.4: The Egyptian and Hittite Empires

The Hittite Empire Rise and Fall of the Hittite Empire Suppiluliumas I (c – 1330 B.C.) Relations with Egypt Reasons for fall Assimilation of other cultures

Discussion Questions What were some of the key characteristics that separated homo sapiens sapiens from other early hominids? What were the reasons behind the Neolithic Revolution? Why is Mesopotamia called the Cradle of Civilization? What does the Code of Hammurabi tell us about Mesopotamian society? What role did the Nile River play in the development of Egyptian civilization? Why was Egyptian civilization so centered on death and dying? What function did women play in Mesopotamian society? What does the existence of megalithic structures tell us about the societies that built them?