Analysing qualitative data BUSINESS RESEARCH Lecture 9 Analysing qualitative data © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Analysing qualitative data Learning objectives After studying this topic, you should be able to Describe quantifying methods of analysis Describe non-quantifying methods of analysis Describe methods for detextualizing data Compare the strengths and weaknesses of methods Choose a method that reflects your paradigm Independent study Study Chapter 9 Activities and progress test as set © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Analysing qualitative data Introduction If you have collected qualitative research data, your method of analysis depends on your paradigm Positivists use various methods for quantifying the data Interpretivists use non-quantifying methods For interpretivists, there is a bewildering ‘array of interpretive techniques which seek to describe, decode, translate and otherwise come to terms with the meaning, not the frequency’ of ... phenomena in the social world’ (Van Maanen, 1983, p. 9) © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Challenge of qualitative data analysis Analysing qualitative data Challenge of qualitative data analysis Unfortunately some researchers fail to describe their methods of analysis in their published work, leading to the following criticisms ‘Despite the proliferation of qualitative research methodology texts ... the actual process of data analysis remains poorly described’ (Morse, 1994, p. 23) ‘Brief conversations, snippets from unstructured interviews, or examples of a particular activity are used to provide evidence for a particular contention ... [and] the representativeness or generality of these fragments is rarely addressed’ (Bryman, 1988, p. 77) © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Main methods for analysing qualitative data Quantifying methods Informal methods Content analysis Non-quantifying methods General approaches Quasi-judicial method Methods based on personal construct theory Grounded theory © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Analysing qualitative data Quantifying methods Informal methods for quantifying data include counting the frequency of occurrence of phenomena to examine ‘repetitive or patterned behaviours’ (Lindlof, 1996, p. 216) If a phenomenon occurs very frequently, you may decide to designate some data as important (retain for analysis) or not important (discard) but do not lose the richness In your methodology chapter, you will need to explain the criteria you have used to include/discard data and justify your decision to use an informal method of analysis rather than a formal method © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Quantifying methods - content analysis Analysing qualitative data Quantifying methods - content analysis Content analysis is ‘a method by which selected items of qualitative data are systematically converted to numerical data for analysis’ (Collis and Hussey, 2009, p. 165) Usually associated with a positivist paradigm to analyse primary data (eg interview transcripts) or secondary data (eg text, images) Eg Examine newspapers for articles on a business problem and analyse by name of newspaper, author, date, page number, length of article, main issues, industry, name of firm or people mentioned, etc © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Procedure for content analysis Analysing qualitative data Procedure for content analysis If you have a large amount of secondary data, determine basis for selecting a sample (eg certain sections) Identify the coding units Construct a coding frame and record the frequency of occurrence of each code Positivists analyse the data using statistical methods Interpretivists prefer to analyse the data for emerging themes and patterns and/or use linguistic analysis to explore the semantics, syntax and context © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Examples of coding units Analysing qualitative data Examples of coding units Coding unit Example Words/phrases Examine minutes of meetings for the word ‘dispute’ Examine circulars and press releases to shareholders for the phrase ‘increased dividends’ Theme Examine minutes of meetings for examples where agreement was reached Examine circulars and press releases to shareholders for examples where increases in productivity are linked to increased profits Item Examine newspapers for articles on small businesses Examine company reports for items on environmental issues Time Measure the time allocated to business news items on the news bulletins of different television channels © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Exercise 1 Content analysis Analysing qualitative data Exercise 1 Content analysis What are the advantages and potential problems of using content analysis? Jot down a few notes © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Solution 1 Content analysis Analysing qualitative data Solution 1 Content analysis Advantages if you are analysing secondary data You don’t have to spend time/money collecting data It is a non-obtrusive method and you have a permanent population or sample which can be examined many times Formal procedures should increase reliability and validity Potential problems Theoretical basis for the analysis is sometimes unclear A large amount of data may be discarded Secondary data prepared for another purpose/audience Time consuming and tedious Requires consistent approach and much concentration © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Non-quantifying methods Analysing qualitative data Non-quantifying methods Main features of non-quantifying methods Reducing the data by finding a systematic way to select relevant data, often through the use of coding Restructuring the data by using a pre-existing theoretical framework or one that emerges during the data collection stage to provide categories into which the data can be fitted Detextualizing the data by summarizing it in the form of a diagram Software such as NVivo or ATLAS.ti can aid some of these processes, but will not perform the analysis © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Analysing qualitative data General approaches Miles and Huberman (1994) describe a systematic and rigorous general analytical procedure that is not tied to a particular methodology Convert field notes into written record Ensure all primary and secondary data is references Start coding the data as soon as possible Group codes into small categories At various stages, write summaries of your findings Use your summaries to construct generalizations Continue until your generalizations are sufficiently robust to confront existing theories or construct a new theory © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Analysing qualitative data Data displays Miles and Huberman (1994) also provide a comprehensive guide to using data displays A network which has a series of labelled nodes with links representing relationships Eg An events flow network used to show sequence of events and relationships between events, and forms the basis of a causal analysis A matrix which is a table with defined columns and rows and appropriate headings Eg An effects matrix used to summarize the effect of organizational change on people, relationships, etc © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Quasi-judicial method Analysing qualitative data Quasi-judicial method The quasi-judicial method ‘involves the use of rational argument to interpret qualitative data’ (Collis and Hussey, 2009, p. 174) Main rules (Bromley, 1986) Investigator reports results truthfully Aims and objectives of investigation are stated explicitly Achievement of aims and objectives is assessed Investigator is properly trained The person is placed in his or her physical, cultural, social and symbolic context The account is written in good plan English © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Repertory grid technique (Kelly, 1955) Analysing qualitative data Repertory grid technique (Kelly, 1955) Repertory grid technique is ‘a method based on personal construct theory that generates a mathematical representation of a participant’s perceptions and constructs’ (Collis and Hussey, 2009, p.150) during a structured interview The grid shows the interviewee’s notions of the concepts under discussion (the elements) and attributes of the elements (the constructs) and rating scores of the pairings Interpretivists prefer to analyse the explanations given by the interviewees when generating the grid Positivists analyse the scores using statistical methods © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Exercise 2 Repertory grid technique Analysing qualitative data Exercise 2 Repertory grid technique What are the advantages and potential problems of using repertory grid technique? Jot down a few notes © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Solution 2 Repertory grid technique Analysing qualitative data Solution 2 Repertory grid technique Advantages Scores can be analysed using statistical methods for ordinal data (more in a later lecture) Potential problems Interviewees may not be able to compare and contrast the triads of dyads of elements or describe the constructs Time consuming May be difficult to aggregate data from individual grids If hypothesised relationships are not based on a theoretical framework or deductive reasoning, a significant results may be entirely spurious (more in a later lecture) © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Analysing qualitative data Cognitive mapping Cognitive mapping is ‘a method based on personal construct theory that structures a participant’s personal constructs in the form of a diagram’ (Collis and Hussey, 2009, p. 177) Goes beyond the use of repertory grid technique and can Used to structure, analyse and make sense of written or verbal accounts of problems Can also be used to summarize interview transcripts and other documents or as a tool for taking notes during an interview © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Main stages in cognitive mapping Analysing qualitative data Main stages in cognitive mapping The text is broken down into phrases (± 10 words) which represent the concepts, which are linked in a non-linear diagram that reveals the pattern of reasoning about the problem Pairs of phrases can be united in a single concept Meaning is retained through contrast The concepts are linked to form a hierarchy of means and ends (explanations) leading to consequences Meaning is retained through the context © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Analysing qualitative data Example of a cognitive map Adapted from Cropper, Eden and Ackermann, (1990, p. 350) 3 share experiences... No communication about one another’s work 73 clear the air from time to time 8 encourage synergy 63 make time to talk about work, performance etc... snatched conversation 14 write joint papers... write solo papers 15 develop mechanisms for cross fertilization 2 share experiences... no joint working on projects 17 people are protective of their area of research... look for links across 56 involved in stimulating teamwork... all too busy to work together © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Analysing qualitative data Grounded theory Grounded theory is ‘a methodology in which a systematic set of procedures is used to develop an inductively derived theory about phenomena’ (Collis and Hussey, 2009, pp. 157 and 179) Based on a hierarchical system of coding Open coding (identifying simple categories), axial coding (connecting categories and sub-categories on the more conceptual level) and selective coding (selecting the core category and systematically relating it to other categories) Relationships should result from the data or from deductive reasoning that is verified within the data © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Analysing qualitative data Conclusions You can analyse primary or secondary research data using method(s) associated with your paradigm You need to justify your choice of methods for collecting and analysing your research data in your research proposal and subsequently in the methodology chapter of your dissertation or thesis Your methods must have a good fit with your paradigm and methodology, be feasible and allow you to investigate your research questions Now read Chapter 9 © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009