Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–15–1 Chapter Five Learning

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–25–2 Did You Know That… A major form of learning was discovered by accident? Déjà-vu may be a learned response? The founder of behaviorism made his mark on the world of advertising by applying a form of learning first observed in studies of digestion in dogs?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–35–3 Did You Know That… (cont’d) In an early study, a young boy learned to fear a white rat after experimenters repeatedly made loud noises by banging steel bars behind his head while the rat was present? Salivating to the sound of a tone may not be harmful, but salivating at the sight of a Scotch bottle may well be dangerous to people battling alcoholism?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–45–4 Pigeons show forms of superstitious behavior that psychologists believe are learned in much the same way as humans learn superstitious behavior? Many people develop fears of various creatures even though they have had no direct negative experiences with them? Did You Know That… (cont’d)

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–55–5 Module 5.1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Through Association

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–65–6 Module 5.1 Preview Questions What is learning? What is classical conditioning? What roles do extinction, spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalization, discrimination, and higher-order learning play in classical conditioning? What stimulus characteristics strengthen conditioned responses?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–75–7 Module 5.1 Preview Questions (cont.) What is the cognitive perspective on classical conditioning? What are some examples of classical conditioning in daily life?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–85–8 What is Learning? A relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience. Has adaptive value. But how does learning occur?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–95–9 Ivan Pavlov ( ) Accidental discovery while studying digestive processes in dogs. Discovered form of learning now called classical conditioning. –Learning by association.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–10 Figure 5.1: Pavlov’s Apparatus

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–11 Figure 5.2: Diagramming Classical Conditioning

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–12 Figure 5.3: Strength of a Conditioned Response

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–13 Figure 5.4: Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–14 Figure 5.5: Higher-Order Conditioning

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–15 Stimulus Characteristics that Strengthen Conditioned Responses Frequency of pairings Timing Intensity of US

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–16 Cognitive Perspective Rescorla: Conditioning depends on the predictive information of the CS. Conditioned stimuli help us predict events in the environment. Important survival implications.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–17 Figure 5.6: The Conditioning of “Little Albert”

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–18 Examples of Classical Conditioning Conditioned emotional reactions (CER) Phobias Positive emotions Drug cravings Conditioned taste aversions Immune system changes

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–19 Module 5.2 Operant Conditioning: Learning Through Consequences

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–20 Module 5.2 Preview Questions What is Thorndike’s Law of Effect? What is operant conditioning? What are the different types of reinforcers? What are schedules of reinforcement, and how do they differ? How are schedules of reinforcement related to learning? Why are psychologists concerned about the use of punishment? What are some applications of operant conditioning?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–21 Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning: Learning results from the association between stimuli before a response occurs. Operant Conditioning: Learning results from the association of a response with its consequences.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–22 Figure 5.7: Thorndike’s Puzzle Box

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–23 Thorndike’s Law of Effect The tendency of a response to occur depends on the effects it has on the environment. –Responses that have satisfying effects are strengthened and more likely to occur again. –Responses that lead to discomfort are weakened and less likely to occur again.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–24 B. F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning Radical Behaviorism: Behavior is determined by environment and genetics. –Free will is an illusion or myth. Organisms learn responses that operate on the environment to produce consequences. –“Operant conditioning” or “instrumental learning”

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–25 Operant Conditioning Consequences of a response determines the likelihood that the response will occur again. Operant Response: The response itself. Reinforcer: A stimulus or even that increases the likelihood that the behavior it follows will be repeated. Superstitious Behavior: Coincidental association of a response and a reinforcement.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–26

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–27 Figure 5.8: Discriminative Stimulus in a Skinner Box

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–28 Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning Discriminative Stimulus: A cue that signals reinforcement is available if a particular response is made. Types of Reinforcement –Positive: Reinforce by adding something pleasant. –Negative: Reinforce by removing something unpleasant.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–29 Figure 5.9: Types of Reinforcers

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–30 Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcers Primary Reinforcers: Reinforcers that are naturally rewarding because they satisfy basic biological needs or drives. Secondary Reinforcers: Reinforcers that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–31 Shaping Application of the method of successive approximations. Reinforce responses that are closer and closer to correct response

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–32 Schedules of Reinforcement When is reinforcement delivered? Continuous Reinforcement: Every response is reinforced. Partial Reinforcement: Only a portion of the responses is reinforced. –Ratio schedules: fixed or variable –Interval schedules: fixed or variable

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–33 Figure 5.10: Rates of Response Under Different Schedules of Partial Reinforcement Source: Adapted from Skinner, B. F. (1961). Cumulative Record (3rd ed.) Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–34 Escape and Avoidance Learning Escape Learning: Escape an aversive stimulus by performing an operant response. Avoidance Learning: Avoid an aversive stimulus by performing an operant response.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–35 Punishment Consequence that weakens or suppresses a response –Removal of a reinforcing stimulus –Introduction of an aversive stimulus

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–36 Figure 5.11: Types of Punishment

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–37 Punishment Often confused with negative reinforcement How are they different? –Punishment Introduces an aversive stimulus Weakens a behavior –Negative reinforcement Removes an aversive stimulus Strengthens a behavior

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–38 Drawbacks of Punishment May suppress but not eliminate undesirable behavior. Does not teach new behaviors. Can have undesirable consequences. May become abusive. May provide inappropriate modeling.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–39

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–40 Applications of Operant Conditioning Biofeedback training Behavior modification –Token economy program Programmed instruction –Computer-assisted instruction

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–41 Module 5.3 Cognitive Learning

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–42 Module 5.3 Preview Questions What is cognitive learning? What is insight learning? What is latent learning? What is observational learning?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–43 Cognitive Learning Learning that occurs without the opportunity of first performing the learned response or being reinforced for it. Involves mental processes that cannot be directly observed.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–44 Insight Learning Wolfgang Köhler’s experiment with Sultan the chimp Insight Learning: Process of mentally working through a problem until sudden realization of problem occurs –The “Aha!” phenomenon

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–45 Figure 5.12: Tolman and Honzik’s Study of Latent Learning

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–46 Latent Learning “Hidden” learning occurs without reinforcement. –Learned behavior displayed only when reinforced. Tolman: The rats had developed a cognitive map of the maze. –Mental representation of maze.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–47 Observational Learning Acquire new behaviors by imitating behaviors observed in others. –Also called vicarious learning or modeling. Become capable of behaviors even before have chance to do the behaviors ourselves. Modeling influences a wide range of behavior.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–48 Module 5.4 Application: Putting Reinforcement into Practice

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–49 Module 5.4 Preview Question What steps are involved in applying reinforcement principles?

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–50 Applying Reinforcement Be specific. Use specific language. Select a reinforcer. Explain the contingency. Apply the reinforcer. Track the desired behavior. Wean from the reinforcer.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. 5–51 Giving Praise Make eye contact and smile. Use hugs. Be specific. Reward effort, not outcome. Avoid repeating yourself. Don’t end on a sour note.