CHAPTER 7 & 8: MEMORY, THINKING, LANGUAGE, INTELLIGENCE AP Psychology

The Nature of Memory  Memory  Internal record or representation of some prior event or experience NOT  Memories are NOT exact recordings of events  Constructive Process  Organizing and shaping of information during processing, storage, and retrieval of memories

Models of Memory  Information-Processing Model  Information that we encounter goes through 3 basic operations  Encoding  Encoding: Processing information into the memory system  Storage  Storage: Retaining information over time  Retrieval  Retrieval: Recovering information from memory storage

Models of Memory  Parallel Distributed Processing Model  Memory results from weblike connections among interacting processing units operating simultaneously, rather than sequentially  What does this mean?? When you encounter information, you don’t analyze it one piece at a time, you take in several features at the same time! Ex: Seeing a shark in the ocean

Models of Memory  Traditional Three-Stage Memory Model  Memory requires three difference stages to hold and process information for various lengths of time  Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory

Three-Stage Memory Model  Sensory Memory sensory informationlarge capacity few seconds relevant bits  First memory stage that holds sensory information; relatively large capacity, but duration is only a few seconds (just long enough to locate relevant bits of data to transfer to longer memory)  Iconic Memory  Iconic Memory: visual information Lasts about half a second  Echoic Memory  Echoic Memory: auditory information Lasts up to 4 seconds

Three-Stage Memory Model  Short-Term Memory (STM)  Second memory stage that temporarily stores sensory information and decides whether to send it on to Long-Term Memory (LTM)  Capacity is limited to 5 to 9 items, and duration is about 30 seconds How to make it last longer? Hold more? Maintenance RehearsalRepeating Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information over and over to maintain it in STM ChunkingGrouping Chunking: Grouping separate pieces of information into a single unit (or chunk)

Three-Stage Memory Model  Long-Term Memory long periods of time  Third stage of memory that stores information for long periods of time virtually limitless relatively permanent  Its capacity is virtually limitless and its duration is relatively permanent  2 Types of Long-Term Memory

Long-Term Memory  Explicit (Declarative) Memory  Type of long-term memory that consciously stores facts, information, and personal life experiences  Ex: Social security number, state capitals, etc. Semantic Memory Semantic Memory: Stores general knowledge Episodic Memory Episodic Memory: Stores memories of personally experienced events

What do we encode?  Semantic Encoding  Meaning of words  Acoustic Encoding  Sound of words  Visual Encoding  How words look

Long-Term Memory  Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory procedural skills classically conditioned responses  Type of long-term memory consisting of unconscious procedural skills and simple classically conditioned responses  Memory without awareness!  Ex: Tying shoes, riding a bike, brushing teeth, fear reaction to snakes

How to Improve Memory Encoding  Levels of Processing  Levels of Processing: Degree or depth of mental processing occurring when material is initially encountered  Deeper levels of processing = more remembering!  Elaborative Rehearsal  Elaborative Rehearsal: Linking new information to previously stored material  Not just repeating, but trying to make sense of it all

Retrieval  Serial Position Effect  Information at the beginning and end of a list is remembered better than material in the middle  Primacy Effect  Primacy Effect: Info at beginning remembered  Recency Effect  Recency Effect: Info at end remembered

Retrieval  Retrieval Cue  Clue or prompt that helps stimulate retrieval of a stored piece of information from LTM  Recall  Retrieving a memory using a general cue (vague, not giving much information)  Ex: Fill-in-the-blank quiz  Recognition  Retrieving a memory using a specific cue  Ex: Multiple-choice quiz

Retrieval  Priming  Activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory Ex: Smell the cologne of an ex-boyfriend, start thinking about a movie you saw with him Ex: Deja-Vu?  Encoding Specificity Principle  Retrieval of info is improved when current conditions are similar to conditions when it was encoded  Context-dependent, mood congruence, state- dependent

Forgetting  Hermann Ebbinghaus  Hermann Ebbinghaus – 1885  Memorized nonsense 3 letter words (SIB, RAL…)  Knew it perfectly, then measured how many were remembered an hour later, a day later, and a week later  Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve  Forgetting is rapid at first! Then slows down over time.  Relearning  Relearning takes less time than initial learning

Forgetting Curve for Spanish

Why do we forget?  Decay Theory  Decay Theory: connections between neurons deteriorate over time if not used  Interference Theory  Interference Theory: two memories are competing  Retroactive Interference  Retroactive Interference: New information interferes with remembering old  Proactive Interference  Proactive Interference: Old information interferes with remembering new

Why do we forget?  Motivated Forgetting Theory unpleasant or anxiety producing consciously or unconsciously  Motivated Forgetting Theory: according to Freud, we forget unpleasant or anxiety producing info either consciously or unconsciously  Encoding Failure Theory not encoded  Encoding Failure Theory: info gets to STM, but is not encoded for storage in LTM (not important enough, not rehearsed)  Retrieval Failure Theory momentarily inaccessible  Retrieval Failure Theory: memories are momentarily inaccessible (tip-of-the- tongue phenomenon)

Key Factors in Forgetting  Misinformation Effect  Distortion of a memory by misleading post-event information False memories based on cues (“How fast was the car going when it smashed into the other?”)  Source Amnesia  Forgetting the true source of a memory “I saw it on CNN” when really heard it from a friend

Key Factors in Forgetting  Sleeper Effect  Info from an unreliable source, which was initially discounted, later gains credibility because the source is forgotten  Information Overload  Massed Practice  Massed Practice: time spent learning is grouped into long, unbroken intervals (CRAMMING)  Distributed Practice  Distributed Practice: practice/study sessions are interspersed with rest periods

Biological Basis of Memory  Learning and remembering modifies the brain’s neural networks  Long-Term Potentiation  Prolonged strengthening of neural firing  Repeated stimulation causes dendrites to grow, ability of neurons to accept or release NTs can be changed

Biological Basis of Memory  Flashbulb Memories  Vivid images of circumstances associated with surprising or strongly emotional events  Ex: 9/11, moonwalk, assassinations  Strong hormones emitted, repeated images in mind  STILL might not be 100% accurate!

Biological Causes of Memory Loss  Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)  Skull has a collision with another object  Ex: Car accidents, falls, gunshots, etc.  Amnesia  Loss of memory as a result of brain injury/trauma  Retrograde Amnesia before  Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of memory for events that occurred before the injury  Anterograde Amnesia after  Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories after a brain injury

Biological Causes of Memory Loss  Alzheimer’s Disease  Progressive mental deterioration characterized by severe memory loss  Occurs most commonly later in life

Biological Causes of Memory Loss  Karl Lashley  Karl Lashley – 1950  Wanted to know where memories are located  Studied rats who had learned a maze  Lesioned a part of the brain, watched in maze What he found? No localized memories! Rats could still go through the maze even with parts of the brain removed