How Do We Research A Private, Intimate Activity? We are deluged with sexual information, but how much can we trust what we read/see/ hear? A few years ago (2001) a condom company did a study to determine average penis length. It was done in Cancun, Mexico, just outside a popular club. A tent was set up where male volunteers could look at sexually explicit pictures.

When they had an erection, their penises were measured by medical staff. They obtained 400 volunteers, but only 300 obtained an erection, and the average penile length was inches ( cm.), longer than in previous medical studies. Why? Self-selection: men who considered they had longer penises were more likely to participate. This was a public situation where guys were with friends.

Many magazines have questionnaires that readers can choose to respond. Can you take the results seriously? Why?

Respondents do not represent the population, but only the people who read a particular magazine. E.g. those who read Redbook are probably not the same people that read Cosmopolitan or Playgirl. How do we get around these obstacles to obtain accurate data?

 Three Important Considerations Are: RESEARCH DESIGN RESEARCH DESIGN RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS SAMPLING SAMPLING RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS

 Research design helps us determine what we can conclude about the nature of the relationship(s) between or amongst variables of interest. RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)

 Some important features of research design: control of extraneous variables control of extraneous variables manipulation of independent variable manipulation of independent variable measurement of dependent variable measurement of dependent variable random assignment of participants to conditions random assignment of participants to conditions  Representativeness: affects generalizability affects generalizability RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)

 Other Sampling Techniques (non- random) Convenience Convenience Stratified Stratified RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)

 Convenience Sample: Getting whoever you can, e.g. Muse questions around campus, Janus report Getting whoever you can, e.g. Muse questions around campus, Janus report  Stratified Sample: Instead of random sample, where you would get different age groups, say, in the same proportion that they exist in the population, take same N for each age group, so comparisons can be made (e.g. seniors) Instead of random sample, where you would get different age groups, say, in the same proportion that they exist in the population, take same N for each age group, so comparisons can be made (e.g. seniors) RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)

Instruments need to have:  Validity The extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure The extent to which an instrument measures what it is supposed to measure  Reliability The extent to which an instrument gives consistent measures over time The extent to which an instrument gives consistent measures over time  Research is only as good as the instruments we use RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)

 Problems With Doing Research in Sexual Behaviour Problems with definitions and terminology Problems with definitions and terminology Problems of Measurement Problems of Measurement Problems of Participant Selection Problems of Participant Selection Problems of Ethics Problems of Ethics Many Refusals Many Refusals Volunteer Bias Volunteer Bias RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)

 Self Reports: Unreliable Social Desirability Social Desirability Memory Memory Inability to Estimate (How long, etc.) Inability to Estimate (How long, etc.)  Wording of Questions Important  Direct Observations: Sampling Bias? (Masters and Johnson) (Masters and Johnson)  Problems with Direct Observation RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)

 Use of Inappropriate Populations Clinical Clinical Prisoner Prisoner  Inappropriate Inferences From Sample to Population  Informed Consent of Research Participants Before or After? Before or After? RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)

 Minimal Harm E.g., Cost/Benefit Analysis E.g., Cost/Benefit Analysis  Debriefing  Assurances of Anonymity and Confidentiality RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)

How we Gather Data: Correlational Designs Imply only an association between variables Imply only an association between variables Experimental Designs Can infer that changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. Can infer that changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)

How we gather data (cont’d):  Experimental Designs (Cont’d) E.g.: Romer (1997) Does interviewing by computer give different results than face-to-face interviews?E.g.: Romer (1997) Does interviewing by computer give different results than face-to-face interviews? Participants: children 9-15 yearsParticipants: children 9-15 years 13 yr. old boys:13 yr. old boys: computer condition: 76% had sex computer condition: 76% had sex interview condition: 50% had sex interview condition: 50% had sex 13 yr. old girls:13 yr. old girls: 48% 48% 25% 25% RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)

How we gather data (cont’d): Conclusions? Conclusions? More truthful with computer privacyMore truthful with computer privacyOR More daring in fibbing with computerMore daring in fibbing with computer Can only say that the type of interview (computer or human) influenced the amount of reporting. Can only say that the type of interview (computer or human) influenced the amount of reporting. Manipulated IV caused changes in DV but what does it mean?? Manipulated IV caused changes in DV but what does it mean?? RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)

One example of recent research:  Meredith Queen’s  IV: videos of a. bonobos having sex b. heterosexual sex c. both male and female homosexual sex d. man masturbating e. woman masturbating f. hunk walking naked on a beach g. beautiful woman exercising in the nude DV1: plethysmograph readings DV2: subjective ratings of arousal on a keypad RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)

Results for men:  Straights were aroused by hetero sex and female sex, masturbation and nude  Gays were aroused by gay sex and male masturbating and nude  Neither group responded to the bonobo video  Their subjective ratings matched the physiological measures. RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)

Results for women:  Regardless of sexual orientation, physiological arousal to every sex clip, including the bonobos.  Subjectively, keypad reports at odds with objective measures. Mind and genitals are not connected. So - women’s sexuality still largely not well understood. RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)

How We Gather Data (Cont’d)  Field Experiment Real Life Setting Real Life Setting Less Control Over Extraneous Variables Less Control Over Extraneous Variables Random Assignment to Conditions Random Assignment to Conditions Researcher Controls Independent Variable Researcher Controls Independent Variable Researcher Determines Which Dependent Variable(s) To Measure Researcher Determines Which Dependent Variable(s) To Measure RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)

How We Gather Data (Cont’d) Quasi Experiments Researcher Has No Control Over Independent Variable Researcher Has No Control Over Independent Variable Instead, Uses “Natural” Events As IV (e.g., Act Of Legislation, Hurricane/Blizzard, Social Movement, Etc.) Instead, Uses “Natural” Events As IV (e.g., Act Of Legislation, Hurricane/Blizzard, Social Movement, Etc.) Researcher Does Have Choice Of Dependent Variable(s) Researcher Does Have Choice Of Dependent Variable(s) RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)

How we gather data (cont’d): Unobtrusive Observation Unobtrusive Observation Archival Research Archival Research Interviews, Surveys Interviews, Surveys Face-To-FaceFace-To-Face TelephoneTelephone QuestionnaireQuestionnaire Case Studies Case Studies Clinical Studies Clinical Studies RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)

How we gather data (cont’d):  Use of Self Reports Social Desirability Bias Social Desirability Bias  Attitudes Often At Odds  Behaviour RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)

 Some Examples of Research: Morton Hunt Survey: similar to Kinsey, 1970s. Changes in % of premarital and extramarital sex. Morton Hunt Survey: similar to Kinsey, 1970s. Changes in % of premarital and extramarital sex. Hite Report: Shere Hite, a self-styled social scientist. Sent questionnaires to about 20,000 women from lists of feminist organizations, friends, etc. Only 3% return: volunteer bias. Medial love it, but totally useless, not rep. Hite Report: Shere Hite, a self-styled social scientist. Sent questionnaires to about 20,000 women from lists of feminist organizations, friends, etc. Only 3% return: volunteer bias. Medial love it, but totally useless, not rep. Laud Humphreys: The Tearoom Trade. Laud Humphreys: The Tearoom Trade. RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)

 Studies from the text to know: Clelia Mosher survey (Ch. 1) Clelia Mosher survey (Ch. 1) Kinsey Kinsey Masters and Johnson Masters and Johnson NORC/NHSLS NORC/NHSLS Canada Youth and AIDS Study Canada Youth and AIDS Study Ontario First Nations AIDS and Healthy Lifestyle Survey Ontario First Nations AIDS and Healthy Lifestyle Survey RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)

 Studies from the text to know: Canadian Survey of Gay and Bisexual Men Canadian Survey of Gay and Bisexual Men Computer Study (Romer et al. 1997) Computer Study (Romer et al. 1997) Humphries “Tea Room Trade” Humphries “Tea Room Trade”  Awareness of Sex Research in Canada (no details)  General Trend in France and Britain RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)

 Morton Hunt Studies (1970s/80s): Similar to Kinsey, different results. Increased admission of pre and extramarital sex. Similar to Kinsey, different results. Increased admission of pre and extramarital sex. Question: does this reflect actual behavioural change or changing social attitudes? Question: does this reflect actual behavioural change or changing social attitudes? RESEARCH CONSIDERATIONS (CONT’D)