Do most people (or ”healthy” people) desire to receive accurate information regarding their abilities? “ The perception of reality is called mentally healthy when what the individual sees corresponds to what is actually there” (Jahoda, 1958) Jourard and Landsman (1980), “The ability to perceive reality as it ‘really is’ is fundamental to effective functioning. It is considered one of the two preconditions to the development of the healthy personality.”

Illusions: Shadows and Fog (Woody Allen)

Internal External Stable Unstabl e Ability, Intelligence, Personality Traits [Depressed people more often use this for failure] Effort, Mood [Depressed people more often use this for success; “I tried hard”] Luck, Transitory weather conditions [Depressed people more often use this for success; “I got lucky”] Task difficulty [Depressed people more often use this for success; easy task] There are 2 other dimensions: Global versus Specific I’m bad at math (specific) vs. I lack academic skills (global) I’m bad at golf (specific) vs. I’m not athletic (global) ~ Positive Illusions and Causal Attributions ~

Taxonomy of Illusions Overly Positive Views of the Self View oneself (and close friends/relatives) as better than others (e.g., personality characteristics, various ability assessments) Self-ratings vs. outside observers of performance Illusion of Contro l: The concept that people are in control over chance events Pull the slot machine lever a certain way Throw dice Willingness to sell lottery ticket – chose number oneself vs. given Visualize basketball shooter making a shots vs. arm curling up like lifting a weight and taking credit for shooter’s success

Unrealistic Optimism --- (e.g., future events) Positive outcomes are overestimated, especially with respect to oneself (e.g., marriage success) Overestimate the likelihood of success on tasks (especially when the task is important to them) Negative outcomes are underestimated (e.g., health problems) College students positive events 4x more likely than negative ones Taxonomy of Illusions (cont.)

Positive mood, greater caring/helping for others Egocentric organization of memory (greater recall of information that fits self views) Greater self-efficacy (motivation, effort, persistence, goal setting, strategies, etc.) Management/Impact of Negative Information Self-fulfilling prophecy (solicit positive, confirmatory information) Seek relationships to enhance positive self-impressions (e.g., similar others, those who view the person as they see themselves) Disconfirm/ignore negative information; negative information analyzed/ questioned more; temporary nature of negative feedback; situational attributions “... strategies of social interaction generally enhance positive self-evaluations and protect against negative ones.” Pockets of incompetence. Avoidance of certain areas, diminish importance of such areas. Admit negatives to enhance other areas of competence, “compartmentalize” negative information Role of Positive Illusions and :

Sample Self-Efficacy Items I can always manage to solve difficult problems if I try hard enough I someone opposes me, I can find means and ways to get what I want. It is easy for me to stick to my aims and accomplish my goals. I am confident that I could deal efficiently with unexpected events. Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to handle unforeseen situations. I can solve most problems if I invest the necessary effort. I can remain calm when facing difficulties because I can rely on my coping abilities. If I am confronted with a problem, I can usually find several solutions. If I am in trouble, I can usually think of something to do. No matter what comes my way, I’m usually able to handle it.

Positive Self-Enhancement and Negative Outcomes Criticism of Previous Studies College student samples (generally higher ability than average others) No specific standard/dimension used (e.g., better than most on what?) Mentally healthy individuals are better able to recall positive events and thoughts versus those with poor mental health (e.g., depressed individuals)

Self-enhancement: Difference between own and other’s ratings (large, positive score indicated greater self-enhancement Study 1: Male self-enhancers: Greater scores on indicators of deceitful, guileful, and distrustful Female self-enhancers: Rigid, narcissistic, thin-skinned, defensive Findings of the 2 longitudinal studies? Study 2: Male self-enhancers: Condescending, hostile, needing immediate gratification Female self-enhancers: Hostile, self-defeating, poor ego-defense

Study 3 (Social interaction and debate with opposite-sex member) Male self-enhancers: Interrupt, speak quickly, brag, hostile Female self-enhancers: Needing reassurance, irritable, awkward interpersonally Summary of Colvin (1995) research in textbook: “… people with overly positive views of themselves are sometimes disliked by their friends and seen as boastful, inconsiderate, and oversensitive to criticism.” Accurate summary?

Other Research Overly positive views and: Control beliefs and failure/negative event --- Unsuccessful liver transplant and greater depression Difficult law school transition and weaker immune system reaction