CHAPTER 3 Research in Psychology: Methods and Design

Chapter Objectives Describe the defining features of a theory in psychology Describe how theories: (a) lead to empirical research, (b) are influenced by the outcomes of research, and (c) need to be productive, parsimonious, and testable Understand the importance of the “What’s next?” question and the value of research that simultaneously replicates and extends prior research

Show how creative thinking occurs in science Use computerized databases (e.g., PsycINFO) to search for information about research in psychology Read and understand elements of an empirical journal article Chapter Objectives

Varieties of Psychological Research Basic vs. Applied Research Basic designed to describe and understand fundamental psychological phenomena. Examples: neural correlates of cognition, behavior, mechanisms of selective attention (dichotic listening) Surveillance video*** Applied designed to shed light on the solution to real-world problems. Example: effect of cell phone use on driving

Varieties of Psychological Research Laboratory greater control minimal mundane realism Field more realistic maximum mundane realism Experimental realism – the extent to which the study has an impact on the subjects, forces them to take the matter seriously, and involves them in the procedures. Mundane realism- how closely a study mirrors real life experiences (Milgram)

Varieties of Psychological Research Quantitative Includes quantitative data and statistical analysis Qualitative Includes narrative descriptions, content analyses, interviews Much research includes elements of both Depression, anxiety studies

Developing Research Ideas: Asking Empirical Questions Empirical questions Answerable with data Terms precisely defined Operational definitions variables defined in terms of a clearly specified set of operations Hunger : 12 hours without food Aggression: car honks, delivering shocks, # of fights on playground Especially important for animal research Important for replication Converging operations Understanding increases as studies with different operational definitions “converge” on the same result

Where to Research Ideas Come From? Our own observations Kitty Genovese (1964) Bystander effect Sometimes from serendipitous events (discovering something while looking for something else) Hubel and Wiesel (1959, 1962): “edge detectors”

Developing Research from Theory The nature of theory Summarizes, organizes, explains, provides basis for predictions regarding a particular phenomenon Includes constructs  hypothetical factors not observed directly; involved in the attempt at explanation e.g., cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957) The relationship between theory and data Hypotheses deduced from theory; reasoning from general statements to make predictions (hypotheses) Outcomes/data provide or fail to provide inductive support for theory theories are never “true” nor “false”; more like “working truths” or “true until proven false”

An example of logical reasoning… If a bird is a crow, then it will be black. Here’s a black bird. Then it must be a crow. If task-set reconfiguration (TSR) theory is true, RT (repeat) < RT (switch) RT (repeat) was indeed < RT (switch) TSR theory is true. Here is a yellow bird. Then it is not a crow. RT (repeat) was not < RT (switch) TSR theory is not true.

Developing Research from Theory Attributes of good theories Productivity good theories produce much research and advance our knowledge e.g., cognitive dissonance theory Falsification good theories can be shown to be wrong (fail to be supported by the data) Although researchers want to be right, still attempt to falsify their own work. Parsimony good theories are concise and provide a simple explanation for results Clever Hans Simpler (more “parsimonious”) explanation (visual cues)

Developing Research from Theory Misunderstandings about theories “It’s not a fact; it’s only a theory.” “It’s just a theory; there’s no proof.” “Here’s my theory about that.”

Developing Research from Other Research Research teams and the “What’s Next?” Question Programs of research Series of interrelated studies Research teams and the apprentice model Use of pilot studies Replication and extension Exact replication rare The norm in Pavlov’s lab, to train new workers Extension  partial replication, with new features added to extend the findings

Reviewing the Literature Computerized database searches In psychology  PsycINFO/ Google Scholar Search tips Using truncated search terms to avoid being too narrow Search results Take note of source (e.g., journal article, book, dissertation) Read Abstracts provided when you click on the title

Sections of a Scientific Paper Cover Page Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion References Tables & Figures