AP Biology Semester Two

 3.e.1 – Individuals can act on information and communicate it to others (51.1).  2.e.3 – Timing and coordination of behavior are regulated by various mechanisms and are important in natural selection (51.1 and 51.2).  2.a.1 - All living systems require constant input of free energy (51.3).

 Behavior, for animals, is essential to survival and reproduction  Behavior is an action carried out by muscles under control of the nervous system in response to a stimulus  One of the characteristics of living organisms!

 Animals “singing” a song  Releasing a scent to mark territory  Waving a claw  What other animal behaviors do you know?

 Niko Tinbergen, a pioneer in the study of animal behavior, suggested four questions that must be answered to understand animal behavior: 1. What stimulus elicits the behavior, and what physiological mechanisms mediate the response? 2. How does the animal’s experience during growth and development influence the response? 3. How does the behavior aid survival and reproduction? 4. What is the behavior’s evolutionary history?

 Read about the three-spined sticklebacks on page  This response is an example of a fixed action pattern  A sequence of unlearned acts directly linked to a simple stimulus – in this case, the color red.  The trigger for the behavior is a sign stimulus (an external cue)

 A regular, long-distance change in location  Animals use environmental stimuli to guide their migration  Stimuli can include:  Earth’s magnetic field  North star  Sun (Circadian clock)  Circadian clock is normally synced with light and dark cycles of the environment  Can also maintain under constant conditions like during hibernation

 Migration and reproduction have a longer cycle than circadian rhythm  Rhythms linked to the yearly cycle of seasons are called circannual rhythms  “circ” – around; “annual” – year  Not all biological rhythms linked to light and dark cycle  Some develop due to the way the organism developed in early stages of life

 Signal – stimulus transmitted from one animal to another  Communication – transmission and reception of signals  Four common modes of animal communication:  Visual  Chemical  Tactile  Auditory  Read about the Honeybee “dances” on pg. 1121/Fig. 51.5

 Chemical substances secreted by animals that communicate through odors or tastes  Used to induce steps of reproduction, to warn other organisms of danger, etc.

 Developmentally fixed behavior that is seen in most individuals of a species throughout their lives  Experiences affect behaviors  Table 51.1, page 1123  Certain learned behaviors can be passed on to progeny

 Learning is the modification of behavior based on specific experiences  Think about things you’ve learned to do  Several types of learning:  Imprinting  Spatial Learning and Cognitive Maps  Associative Learning  Cognition and Problem Solving  Development of Learned Behaviors  Social Learning

 Formation at a specific stage in life of a long-lasting behavioral response to a particular individual or object  Includes both learned and innate components  Differs from other types of learning by having a sensitive period in which the imprinting must occur  Environment provides imprinting stimulus to direct young to imprint  See examples of greylag geese and whooping cranes on pg. 1124

 Spatial learning – establishment of a memory that reflects the environment’s spatial structure  Location of nest sites, hazards, food, prospective mates, etc.  Study figure 51.8 on page 1125 and relate to spatial learning  Cognitive maps – representation in the nervous system of the spatial relationships between objects in an animal’s surroundings  Nutcracker bird stores up to 30,000 pine seeds over a 35km 2 area and finds them in the winter using an innate “Seed caches are found halfway between particular landmarks” geometric rule

 The ability to associate one environmental feature with another  Blue jays vomit after eating Monarch butterflies, so they learn to stay away from them and other species resembling Monarchs  Be able to contrast classical and operant conditioning  Some animals can’t make particular associations  Pigeons can associate danger with a sound, but not color, but can associate a color with food  Normally based on evolution of behavior; certain associations can’t be made because they’re not evolutionarily advantageous

 Cognition is the process of knowing that involves awareness, reasoning, recollection, and judgment  Fig on page 1126  Problem Solving – cognitive activity of devising a method to proceed from one state to another in the face of real or apparent obstacles  Highly developed problem solving in mammals, esp. primates and dolphins

 Read and summarize these sections on pages of the Campbell text

 Differences in foraging (food-obtaining) behaviors (page 1128)  Two genes in Drosophila melanogaster for food-search behavior  Low density populations carry the gene for short distance foraging; high density populations carry the gene for long distance foraging WHY? What does that mean in terms of energy expenditure?

 Essential knowledge 2.e.3 – Timing and coordination of behavior are regulated by various mechanisms and are important in natural selection (51.1 and 51.2).  Essential knowledge 2.a.1 – All living systems require constant input of free energy (51.3).