 Axial skeleton – bones of the skull, vertebral column, and rib cage  80 bones make up the Axial Skeleton  Appendicular skeleton – bones of the upper and lower limbs, shoulder, and hip  126 bones of the Appendicular skeleton

 Support – form the framework that supports the body and cradles soft organs  Protection – provide a protective case for the brain, spinal cord, and vital organs  Movement – provide levers for muscles  Mineral storage – reservoir for minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus  Blood cell formation – hematopoiesis occurs within the marrow cavities of bones

 Long bones – longer than they are wide (e.g., humerus)  Short bones  Cube-shaped bones of the wrist and ankle  Sesamoid- Bones that form within tendons (e.g., patella)  Flat bones – thin, flattened, and a bit curved (e.g., sternum, and most skull bones) * Irregular bones – bones with complicated shapes (e.g., vertebrae and hip bones)

General Facts a.The skull is made of 22 bones: 8 cranial, 13 facial, mandible b.There are 206 individual bones in an adult. Some are hinged and others are fused to one another c.The upper jaw (maxillae) is fused to the cranium. The lower jaw (mandible) is moveable. d.The infant skull is incompletely developed and features fontanels or soft spots to aid passage thru the birth canal and allow for growth of the brain.

General Facts continued... e.The vertebrate is made of: 7 cervical vertebrae 12 thoracic vertebrae 5 massive lumbar vertebrae Sacrum, which is a triangular bone made of 5 fused bones at the end of the vertebral column. Coccyx, which is made up of 4 fused bones at the end of the sacrum (tailbone). It is immovable in humans, but flexible in cats, dogs, and monkeys

General Facts continued... There are 12 pairs of ribs which attach to the sternum thru the thoracic vertebrae. the first 7 pairs of ribs are true (or vertebrosternal) ribs that join the sternum directly by their costal cartilages. the remaining 5 ribs are false ribs: the first 3 pairs are vertebrochondral ribs and the last 2 pairs are floating ribs. Bones grow from the growth plates in the epiphyseal disks

 Bones grow from the growth plates in the epiphyseal disks

 Bones thicken with weight bearing exercise  Lack of exercise leads to bone atrophy  Vitamin D necessary to absorb calcium for bone strength  Vitamin C necessary for collagen  Vitamin A necessary for bone growth

 Tutorial on Bones of the Skull Tutorial on Bones of the Skull

 Periosteum – double-layered protective membrane  Outer fibrous layer is dense regular connective tissue  Inner osteogenic layer is composed of osteoblasts and osteoclasts  Richly supplied with nerve fibers, blood, and lymphatic vessels, which enter the bone via nutrient foramina  Secured to underlying bone by Sharpey’s fibers  Endosteum – delicate membrane covering internal surfaces of bone

 Marrow: -Yellow: Located in the center of the diaphysis in the medullar canal. Made mostly of fat cells, contains many blood vessels, some leukocytes (WBC). Functions as a fat storage center. -Red: Located at the ends of the long bones. Where some erythrocytes (RBC) and WBCs are made.

 Compact bone – dense outer layer. Makes up the walls of the diaphysis.  Spongy bone – honeycomb of trabeculae filled with yellow bone marrow. Fills the epiphyses to reduce the weight of the skeleton.

 Long bones consist of a diaphysis and an epiphysis  Diaphysis ▪ Tubular shaft that forms the axis of long bones ▪ Composed of compact bone that surrounds the medullary cavity ▪ Yellow bone marrow (fat) is contained in the medullary cavity

 Epiphyses  Expanded ends of long bones  Exterior is compact bone, and the interior is spongy bone  Joint surface is covered with articular (hyaline) cartilage  Epiphyseal line separates the diaphysis from the epiphyses

 Osteocytes – mature bone cells  Lacunae – small cavities in bone that contain osteocytes  Canaliculi – hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal

Haversian system, or osteon – the structural unit of compact bone Lamella – weight-bearing, column-like matrix tubes composed mainly of collagen Haversian, or central canal – central channel containing blood vessels and nerves Volkmann’s canals – channels lying at right angles to the central canal, connecting blood and nerve supply of the periosteum to that of the Haversian canal

 Osteoporosis- reduction in bone mineral density which leads to fractures  Fractures  Cancer  Scoliosis- curvature of the spine  Rickets Caused by lack of vitamin D in children  Bone wasting or atrophy

10 Types of Fractures 1.Compression Fracture: bone crushed; common in the vertebral column 2.Comminuted fracture: most commonly seen in the brittle bones of the elderly 3.Compound fracture: fracture in which the bone ends penetrate the skin 4.Closed reduction: non-surgical realignment of broken bone ends and splinting of the bone. 5.Depressed fracture: common fracture of the skull in which the bones become concave

10 Types of Fractures (cont.) 6.Simple fracture: bone is cleanly broken and does not penetrate the skin; commonly called a closed fracture 7.Impacted fracture: fracture in which the broken ends are pushed into each other 8.Open fracture: fracture that required surgical realignment of the broken bone ends 9.Greenstick fracture: common in children; bone splinters but doesn’t break completely; sometimes referred to as a “hairline” fracture 10.Spiral fracture: bone breaks due to twisting forces: common in sports injuries

Closed reduction compound Open reduction

Impacted