SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE ADULTHOOD Chapter 16 SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE ADULTHOOD Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

How does personality development occur in middle adulthood? Ask: In what ways do you think personality might change during this period? How might it stay the same? What evidence or theory do you have from earlier development that could support your answer?

Two Perspectives on Adult Personality Development Normative-Crisis Views personality development in terms of fairly universal stages, tied to a sequence of age-related crises Erikson, Gould, and Levinson's models are stage models. Critics argue that normative-crisis models are outdated. They came from a time when gender roles were more rigid. Life-Events Suggests particular life even determine course of personality development Changes in society call into question normative-crisis models that are closely tied to age Both models agree that adulthood is not a time of passivity and stagnation but of continued psychological growth.

Two Perspectives on Adult Personality Development Life Events: Revenna Helson Suggest that timing of particular events in adult's life, rather than age per se, determine course of personality development According to this model, a woman having her first baby at 21 would experience the same psychological forces as a woman having her first baby at 39. (ROTFL)

Erik Erikson Generativity versus stagnation Generativity = looking beyond oneself to continuation of one's life through others Stagnation = focusing on the triviality of their life Critics argue that normative-crisis models are outdated; model came from time when gender roles were more rigid Generativity Guiding and encouraging future generations Leaving a lasting contribution to the world through creative or artistic output Looking beyond oneself to the continuation of one's life through others Stagnation Focusing on the triviality of their life Feeling they have made only a limited contribution to the world, that their presence has counted for little

Building on Erikson's Views: Gould, Vaillant, and Levinson

Psychiatrist Roger Gould Adults pass through series of seven, age-related stages People in late 30s and early 40s begin to feel sense of urgency in attaining life's goals this reality propels them to adulthood. Like much of Psychiatry, descriptions not research supported

Gould's 7 Stage Approach Stage 1 (16-18) plan to leave home and terminate parental control Stage 2 (18-22) leave the family and begin to reorient toward peers Stage 3 (22-28) become independent and commit to career and (often) spouse and children Stage 4 (29-34) question themselves and experience confusion; they may become dissatisfied with marriage and career Stage 5 (35-43) feel an urgent need to achieve life goals, becoming increasingly aware of the passage and limits of time; they often realign life goals Stage 6 (43-53) settle down at last, with acceptance of their lives Stage 7 (53-60) grow more tolerant, accepting their past; they become less negative and generally more mellow

X George Vallant American psychiatrist and Professor at Harvard Medical School and Director of Research for the Department of Psychiatry In 1966, when he was 32, George Vaillant took over Harvard’s famous Grant Study. The task: track hundreds of Harvard men, from youth to death, and determine what predicts wellbeing. Vaillant establishes a “Decathlon of Flourishing,” a sort of Happiness Olympics in which each Grant member’s life competes. The “events” include: good subjective and objective physical and mental health at age 80; close to kids between ages 60 and 75; availability of social supports other than wife and kids between ages 60 and 75; in a good marriage between ages 60 and 85; and earned income in study’s top quartile.

Levinson: Seasons of Life Theory Most people are susceptible to fairly profound midlife crisis Late 30s Early 40s Between 40 and 45 Interviewed males Beginning stages have to do with leaving one's family and entering the adult world. Early 40s are a period of transition and crisis. Around age 40 or 45, people move into a period that Levinson calls the midlife transition. The midlife transition is a time of questioning. People begin to focus on the finite nature of life, and they begin to question some of their everyday, fundamental assumptions. This period of assessment may lead to a midlife crisis, a stage of uncertainty and indecision brought about by the realization that life is finite. Facing signs of physical aging, men may also discover that even the accomplishments of which they are proudest have brought them less satisfaction than they expected.

Midlife Crisis Stage of uncertainty and indecision brought about by period of assessment which may lead realization that life is finite Gender differences Despite widespread acceptance, evidence for midlife crisis does not exist Facing signs of physical aging, men may also discover that even accomplishments they are proudest of brought them less satisfaction than expected. Looking toward the past, they may seek to define what went wrong & look for ways to correct past mistakes. Levinson claims women go through similar stages but have a more difficult time with "the dream" because of inner conflicts over career versus family.

Non-Midlife Life Crisis Non-midlife crisis For majority of people, transition is smooth and rewarding Many middle-aged people find their careers have blossomed They feel younger than they actually are We may just pay more attention to the few who exhibit a midlife crisis.

What Age Do You Feel Most of the Time? Throughout adulthood, most people say they feel younger than they actually are. (Source: Based on The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Research Network on Successful Midlife Development,1999.)

PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT Does personality change or remains stable over course of development? Lots of disagreement Erikson and Levinson = substantial change Paul Costa and Robert McCrae = stability in particular traits across development Developmentalists feel that personality is both stable (on some traits) and changeable on others. Psychologists argue whether personality changes or remains stable over the course of development. Erikson and Levinson suggest that personality changes substantially over the life span. Paul Costa and Robert McCrae find remarkable stability in particular traits across the life span.

Middle Age: In Some Cultures It Doesn't Exist Model of aging of Oriyan women High caste Hindu women Life course based on nature of one's social responsibility, family management issues, and moral sense at given time  not on basis of chronological age Domestic work is highly respected and valued The model of aging of the Oriyan women is based on two phases of life: life in her father's house (bapa gharo), followed by life in her husband's mother's house (sasu gharo). These two segments make sense in the context of Oriyan family life, which consists of multigenerational households in which marriages are arranged. After they are married, husbands remain with their parents and wives are expected to move into the husband's parents’ household. At the time of marriage, a wife is seen as having changed social status from a child (someone's daughter) to a sexually active female. Chronological age, per se, does not mark significant boundaries in life for Oriyan women, nor do physical changes, such as the onset of menstruation nor its cessation at menopause. Instead, it is the change from daughter to daughter-in-law which brings about a significant alteration in social responsibility.

Same ol’…same ol’? Personality is quite stable and continuous over the life span. Self-concept at age 30 is a good indication of SC at age 80. People's traits actually become more ingrained as they age. Figure 16-2 The Stability of Personality According to Paul Costa and Robert McCrae, basic personality traits such as neuroticism, extroversion, and openness are stable and consistent throughout adulthood. (Source: Based on Costa et al., 1986, p. 148.) Based on the five factor model of personality. For a nice summary see here

Stability and Change in the Big Five Personality Traits Big Five traits are relatively stable past age 30 with some variations in specific traits Neuroticism: the degree to which a person is moody, anxious, and self-critical. Extraversion: how outgoing or shy a person is. Openness: a person's level of curiosity and interest in new experiences. Agreeableness: how easygoing and helpful a person tends to be. Conscientiousness: a person's tendencies to be organized and responsible. Neuroticism, extraversion, and openness to experience decline somewhat from early adulthood through middle adulthood Agreeableness and conscientiousness increase to a degree Findings are consistent across cultures

What makes you happy? Ask: What makes you happy? Does this change? With age? Circumstances? People?

If You’re Happy and You Know It… Sense of subjective well-being or general happiness remains stable over life span Most people create a “set point” for happiness Regardless of where they stand economically, residents of countries across the world have similar levels of happiness Of course, changes from moment to moment but average is fairly stable Average is fairly high

RELATIONSHIPS: FAMILY IN MIDDLE AGE In middle age that most parents experience major changes in their relationships not only with their children, but with other family members as well. It is a period of shifting role relationships that, in 21st century Western cultures, encompass an increasing number of combinations and permutations.

Middle Age Marriages Feelings ‘on average’ Most frequent pattern of marital satisfaction is U-shaped Marital satisfaction begins to decline after marriage and falls to its lowest point following the birth of children Marital satisfaction begins to grow after children leave adolescence and reaches its highest point when kids leave home Many couples state that their spouse is their “best friend.” They also view marriage as a long-term commitment They believe their spouse has grown more interesting over the years. Most feel their sex lives (although frequency goes down) are satisfying.

The Phases of Martial Satisfaction (Source: Based on Rollins & Cannon, 1974.)

After the Vows: Changes in Marital Satisfaction Over Time Older research establishing U-shaped pattern used cross-sectional research, surveying different people at different points in their marriages Current research employed longitudinal methods confirmed marital satisfaction decline but failed to find evidence of a subsequent upswing after the childbearing years Over time, marriage quality continues to decline over course of marriage Your Environment ask your parents

What do the newer findings suggest? Furthermore, parenting plays a role in the developmental path of marriage quality—but not a straightforward one. What do the newer findings suggest? Unhappy marriages tend to terminate so earlier cross-sectional methods not representative Long-married couples were older and were married during time when marriage was more highly valued Older couples tend to have happier marriages both at the outset and in the later years. people tend to become less emotionally reactive to marital discord as they age or that their standards for evaluating their partners become more mellow. Different couples have different levels of marital satisfaction even at outset Parenting plays a role in the developmental path of marriage quality—but not a straightforward one.

Struggling Marriages About 1 woman in 8 will get divorced after 40 People are more individual, spending less time together Many feel concerned with their own personal happiness and leave an unhappy marriage Divorce is more socially acceptable Feelings of romantic, passionate love may subside over time Unrealistic expectations

Divorce Although the overall divorce rate has declined in the last two decades, divorce among couples during midlife is actually rising One woman in eight who is in her first marriage will get divorced after the age of 40, and one in four of all divorces were by people 50 and older Divorce rate for people 50 and over has doubled in the last 20 years and is expected to increase Health care expenses may force divorces

Divorce cont Divorce can be especially hard for traditional women over 40 who stayed home with the kids and never worked. 75 % to 80 % of divorced people eventually remarry. It's harder for a middle-aged woman to remarry. 90 % of women under 25 remarry While 75 % of white women remarry, less than half of African American women remarry. Less than 33 % over the age of 40 remarry.

More divorce in middle-age Government policies now punish marriage Especially true of retired persons Especially true of independent professionals Income tax & health care policy negative to marriage Children somewhat offset this discrimination

Rising Divorces in Middle Adulthood Both the divorce rate and the number of people that experience divorce in those 50 years and above have risen significantly, and the increases are projected to continue in the future. (Source: Brown & Lin, 2012, Figure 1.) Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Marriage Gradient The marriage gradient pushes men to marry younger women Older women are victims of the harsh societal standards regarding physical attractiveness A major reason many remarry is that being divorced carries a stigma

Second Time Around Older couples are more mature and realistic Roles are more flexible Couple looks at marriage less romantically and is more cautious Divorce rate is higher for second marriages More stress especially with blended families Once divorce experienced it is easier to walk away a second time

Family Evolutions: From Full House to Empty Nest Empty Nest Syndrome When parents experience feelings of unhappiness, worry, loneliness, and depression resulting from their children's departure from home More myth than reality Many ordinary people define empty nest syndrome in a positive way

When children leave home… Parents can work harder More time alone House stays cleaner Phone does not ring as often

Boomerang Children: Refilling the Empty Nest Young adults who come back to live in homes of their middle-aged parents Men are more likely to do it than women Parents tend to give sons more freedom than daughters Unable to find a job Difficulty making ends meet Awful economy

More Boomerang Children: Enjoying It Less (Source: Pew Research Center, 2012.) An untrusted, biased pseudoresearch organization Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Sandwich Generation Middle-aged couples must Fulfill needs of both their children and their aging parents Couples are marrying and having children later Parents are living longer The care of parents ranges from financial aid to having parents live in their home. Most of the burden falls on the wife - especially if not working. Result of awful economy, healthcare expenses, etc. This is difficult because of role reversal.

Caring for Aging Parents Care of aging parents can be psychologically tricky Significant degree of role reversal Bourn by women iven in in-law care Range of care varies Financial Managing household Providing direct care Influenced by cultural norms and expectations In many cases, the burden of caring for aging parents is not shared equally, with the larger share most often taken on by women. Even in married couples where both husband and wife are in the labor force, middle-aged women tend to be more involved in the day-to-day care of aging parents, even when the parent or parents are their in-laws. Culture also influences how caregivers view their roles.

Becoming a Grandparent: Involved: grandparents are actively engaged in grandparenting and have influence over their grandchildren's lives. Companionate: grandparents are more relaxed, and act as supporters and buddies to their grandchildren. Remote: grandparents are detached and distant, and show little interest in their grandchildren. Grandmothers tend to be more involved than grandfathers. African-American grandparents are more involved with their grandchildren than white grandparents.

Are All Grannies the Same? Marked gender differences in ways people enjoy grandparenthood Grandmothers are more interested and experience greater satisfaction than grandfathers African American grandparents are more apt to be involved Large cultural differences Large familiar differences African American families, which are more likely than white families to be headed by single parents, often rely substantially on the help of grandparents in everyday child care, and cultural norms tend to be highly supportive of grandparents taking an active role.

Family Violence: The Hidden Epidemic Prevalence Between 21 and 34 percent of women will be slapped, kicked, beaten, choked, or threatened or attacked with a weapon at least once by an intimate partner Close to 15 percent of all marriages in the United States are characterized by continuing, severe violence Estimates suggest that one in three women throughout the globe experience some form of violent victimization during their lives

Factors That Put a Family at Risk for Abuse Low SES Growing up in a violent home Families with more children have more violence Single parent families with lots of stress Ethnicity Estimates range from 960,000 incidents of violence against a current or former spouse, boyfriend, or girlfriend to 3 million women who are physically abused by their husband or boyfriend per year.

Stages of Violence Walker Marital abuse by a husband occurs in three stages: Tension-building stage where a batterer becomes upset and shows dissatisfaction initially through verbal abuse Acute battering incident when the physical abuse actually occurs Loving contrition stage where the husband feels remorse and apologizes for his actions

Cycle of Violence Hypothesis Abuse and neglect of children leads them to be predisposed to abusiveness as adults About one-third of people who were abused or neglected as children abuse their own children Two-thirds of abusers were not abused as children Other sources strongly dispute these numbers Data is about as poor as it gets

Why Women Stay Wife feels somewhat at fault This explains why women stay in abusive relationships Some stay out of fear Financial fear Something to love in abuser

Spousal Abuse and Society Cultural Roots of Violence Others cultures have traditions in which violence is regarded as acceptable Some experts suggest traditional power structure under which women and men function is root cause of abuse If you are interested in more information on cultural causes (and have a strong stomach see this link.) Wife-battering is particularly prevalent in cultures in which women are viewed as inferior to men and treated as property. More society differentiates between men and women in terms of status, the more likely it is that abuse will occur. Abuse is more likely to occur in states where women are of particularly low or high status compared with women's status in other states. Apparently, relatively low status makes women easy targets of violence. Conversely, unusually high status may make husbands feel threatened and consequently more likely to behave abusively.

Cultural Differences Cultural correlates Status Low status they = easy targets High status = threat to husbands Wife battering is particularly prevalent in cultures in which women are viewed as inferior to men. Original English law allowed husbands to beat their wives. Law was amended to permit beating only with a stick that was no thicker than his thumb (where the phrase "rule of thumb" comes from). Wife beating was not removed from law until the late 1900s. When women have low status they become easy targets; when they have high status they are threatening to their husbands.

Dealing with Spousal Abuse Teach both wives and husbands that physical violence is NEVER acceptable Call the police Understand that the remorse shown by a spouse, no matter how heartfelt, may have no bearing on the possibility of future violence If you are the victim of abuse, seek a safe haven If you feel in danger from an abusive partner, seek a restraining order Call the National Domestic Violence Hotline at 1-800-799-7233 for immediate advice Teach both wives and husbands a basic premise: Physical violence is never, under any circumstances, an acceptable means of resolving disagreements. Call the police. It is against the law to assault another person, including a spouse. Although it may be difficult to involve law enforcement officers, this is a realistic way of dealing with domestic abuse. Judges can also issue restraining orders requiring abusive husbands to stay away from their wives. Understand that the remorse shown by a spouse, no matter how heartfelt, may have no bearing on the possibility of future violence. Even if a husband shows loving regret after a battering session and vows that he will never be violent again, such a promise is no guarantee against future abuse. If you are the victim of abuse, seek a safe haven. Many communities have shelters for the victims of domestic violence that can house women and their children. Because addresses of shelters are kept confidential, an abusive spouse will not be able to find you. Telephone numbers are listed in the yellow or blue pages of phone books, and local police should also have the numbers. If you feel in danger from an abusive partner, seek a restraining order from a judge in court. Under a restraining order a spouse is forbidden to come near you, under penalty of law. Call the National Domestic Violence Hotline at 1-800-799-7233 for immediate advice.

WORK AND LEISURE Middle age may be the period when work and leisure activities are balanced most easily. No longer feeling that they must prove themselves on the job, and increasingly valuing the contributions they are able to make to family, community, and—more broadly—society, middle-aged adults may find that work and leisure complement one another in ways that enhance overall happiness.

Work and Careers: Jobs at Midlife Productivity Job satisfaction Worker characteristics and attitudes For many, middle age is the time of greatest productivity, success, and earning power. The factors that make work satisfying undergo a transformation during middle age. Middle-aged workers care more about the here-and-now qualities of work The older workers are, the more overall job satisfaction they experience. Job satisfaction is not universal in middle adulthood. As at earlier stages of life, changes in overall job quality are associated with changes in stress levels for both men and women.

Challenges of Work: On-the-Job Dissatisfaction What is the greatest underlying cause of burnout? For some people, in fact, work becomes increasingly stressful as dissatisfaction with working conditions or with the nature of the job mounts. In some cases, conditions become so bad that the result is burnout or a decision to change jobs.

Burnout When highly trained professionals experience dissatisfaction, disillusionment, frustration, and weariness from their jobs For many workers, unemployment is a hard reality of life and the implications are more psychological than economic Occurs most often in jobs that involve helping others and strikes those who are most idealistic and driven Middle-aged adults tend to stay unemployed longer than do young workers One of the consequences of burnout is a growing cynicism about one's work. Workers may feel indifference and lack of concern about how well they do their job. Idealism with which a worker may have entered profession is replaced by pessimism and attitude that it is impossible to provide any kind of meaningful solution to problem.

Switching—and Starting—Careers at Midlife Some people change or seek jobs voluntarily in middle adulthood Old job gave little satisfaction Mastery of the old job's challenges achieved No longer enjoy what they do Need employment after raising children, divorce, or death of spouse Significant number of people, almost all of them women, return to the job market after having taken time off to raise children. Some may need to find paying work after a divorce. Since the mid-1980s, the number of women in the workforce who are in their 50s has grown significantly.

Women at Work The percentage of women aged 55 to 64 who are in the labor force has steadily increased since 1980 and is slated to continue to grow over the current decade. (Source: Monthly Labor Review, 2009.) Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Unemployment: The Dashing of the Dream Causes economic and psychological consequences Feeling anxious, depressed, and irritable Self-confidence and concentration may plummet Sometimes depression and/or suicide For many workers, unemployment is a hard reality of life, and the implications of not being able to find work are as much psychological as they are economic. For those who have been fired, laid-off by corporate downsizing, or forced out of jobs by technological advances, being out of work can be psychologically and even physically devastating. Every time the unemployment rate goes up 1 percent, there is a 4 percent rise in suicide, and admissions to psychiatric facilities go up by some 4 percent for men and 2 percent for women.

Leisure time Leisure activities Average number of hours Nature of activities Pace of life differs across countries Most middle-aged adults have 70 hours a week for leisure time. Average middle-aged person watches 15 hours of TV per week. Adults spend about 6 hours a week socializing. Some turn to charity, or community organizations. Life is faster-paced in the U.S. than in many other countries, with the exception of Japan and Western European countries.

When Mom Goes to Work…Hey, What Do You Think She Has Been Doing At Home All Those Years? 65 percent of women between ages of 50 and 60 (80 percent of those who graduated from college) are now in the workforce Three-quarters are in full-time jobs