BIOLOGICAL COGNITIVE SOCIOCULTURAL Levels of Analysis (LoA)

Biological LoA Focuses on physiology and genetics Gender differences via genetic makeup  XY and XX chromosomes Gender differences from the impact of hormones  testosterone and estrogen

Cognitive LoA Focuses on mental processes  Memory  Thinking  Perception  Attention Gender differences via gender schema theory Social cognition Gender stereotypes

Sociocultural LoA Focuses on how environment and culture impact behavior and thinking Impact of cultural definitions and roles for our mental representations of each gender Gender differences explained through social learning theory  Watching individuals of the same sex for behavior cues

PHYSIOLOGY AND GENETICS Biological Level of Analysis

Biological LoA: Physiology & Behavior Biology can affect cognition and cognition can affect biology…relationship is bidirectional Physiological factors that impact behavior:  Brain processes  Neurotransmitters  Hormones  Genes Physiology does not work alone since environmental stimuli influence our behavior  Stressful experiences  Attractive person passing by  Brain damage caused by trauma

Goal of IB Psychology Taking a holistic approach to human behavior Interactionist Approach: Both sides of nature (biology) vs. nurture (environment) argument.

Principles of Human Behavior (Biological LoA) 1. Behavior can be innate since it is genetically based Evolution…key role in behavior 2. Animal research can provide insight to human behavior Much research done with animals 3. Biology correlates with behavior Links between specific biological factors and specific behaviors

Reductionist Approach Micro-level research; breaking down complex human behavior into simple parts. Criticized for being over simplistic but allows us to gain detailed knowledge of human behavior Important because it allows understanding of several factors that influence one behavior

Impact of Neurotransmitters on Behavior Influences mood, memory, sexual arousal, and mental illness Acetylcholine  Muscle contraction, helps with development of memory in hippocampus Dopamine  Voluntary movement, learning, feelings of pleasure Norepinephrine (noradrenalin)  Arousal, alertness, stimulation of sympathetic nervous system Serotonin  Sleep, arousal levels, emotion

Affect of Serotonin on Behavior Tokyo University (Kasamatsu and Hirai, 1999) Aim: How sensory deprivation affects the brain Buddhist monks deprived of food, water, no communication, and exposure to cold weather 48 hours, hallucinations Blood samples before and right after hallucinations (serotonin levels increased which activated the frontal cortex and hypothalamus) Conclusion: Sensory deprivation released serotonin which altered monks experience.

Drugs Stimulate the production of neurotransmitters Block receptor sites if too much is produced

Technology and the Brain & Behavior Technology gives researchers the ability to monitor and discover the “map” of the brain’s activity Previously, case studies were used; usually situations that would be unethical to reproduce in the lab.  Case studies of brain damaged patients carried out over a long period of time (longitudinally)  Phineas Gage, Paul Broca, Carl Wernicke  Allows for observation of short-term and long- term effects

Localization of Brain Function The idea that specific parts of the brain are responsible for specific functions When a behavior is localized in the brain, it is possible to trace the origin of the behavior to a specific part of the brain. Does not explain ALL human behavior but is a major step forward in brain research

Robert Heath (1950s) James Old (1950s) Electrically stimulated parts o f the brain in depressed patients=experienced pleasure One patient (B-19) electrically stimulated himself 1,500 times in 3 hours Experienced euphoria and elation and was eventually disconnected against his will Rats would receive electrical stimulation to the nucleus accumbens when a lever was pressed Crossed over electrified grids and preferred pleasure lever over food and water Research on the role of the nucleus accumbens (pleasure center)

Brain Functions and Ethical Considerations Electrical stimulation of the nucleus accumbens is based mainly on dopamine (desire) and serotonin (satiety and inhibition) Via animal studies, all drugs increase the production of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and reduce serotonin.  Cocaine and nicotine Frequent use of drugs increase the amount of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens.  Why drug addicts have an obsessive drive to seek more drugs even though they know its not good for them

Spiders on Drugs

Technology Invasive Techniques Study the active brain  EEG, PET, fMRI More ethical May be misleading Ablation (removing) & leisoning (scarring) techniques on animals Harm cannot be reversed  Ethical?  Pain? Technology vs. Invasive Techniques

Jig-Saw Activity Slides…

Biological LoA: Genetics & Behavior Behavioral genetics: Understanding how both genetics and the environment play a role to individual variations in human behavior. Rhesus macaque monkeys & humans  93% genes are shared, the 7% makes a large difference Complexity of genetics: Inheritance contributes to behavior and acts as a building block however, it is not probable that one specific gene is responsible for complex behaviors:  Intelligence, criminal behavior, attachment, altruism

+ = DISORDER The diathesis-stress model The model looks at the genetic/biologic vulnerability to a disorder/disease and the stress or traumatic environmental stimuli that may trigger a disorder (such as depression) The diathesis-stress model uses the analogy of a "walking time bomb" to help explain why, for example, not 100% of identical twins both get depression. It also helps to explain why a large percent of people in traumatic situations (post 9/11, rape, etc.) never develop PTSD. The model further talks about a balance -- the greater the diathesis or predisposition, the less the stress required for the disorder to "appear" and visa versa. Biological / genetic predisposition Stress (environment)

Last years notes on genetics and evolution… I hope you didn’t lose them! If you did, in your hours of free time, check these out on the wiki

Inheritance Genes that are passed down from parents to their off-spring Humans are composed of 24 pairs of chromosomes  20,000-25,000 genes James Watson: Human Genome Project   Mapped human genes  Regardless of this amazing accomplishment, the role of specific genes are still unknown

Genetic Research Based off of correlation studies Independent variable is not manipulated, so no cause and effect can be determined. Three types:  Twin Studies  Family Studies  Adoption Studies

Twin Studies Identical: one egg split in two Share 100% of genes  Same sex Fraternal: Formed from two separate eggs Share 50% of genes just like any other siblings  Same or different sex Monozygotic (MZ) Dizygotic (DZ) Used as basis for hypotheses since they show the different degrees of genetic relationship. In twin studies the correlation found is known as concordance.

Family Studies More representative of the general population Different degree of relatedness is compared with behavior to determine the impact of genes. Child Mother (50%) Grandparent (25%) Father (50%)

Adoption Studies  Used to determine how great of an impact environment plays in behavior since the child does not share any genes with foster parents.  Often criticized because of selective placement  Agencies tend to find adoptive parents that are similar to their biological parents which cause a difficulty in determining separating genetic inheritance from environment influences. This process is known as selective placement.

Evolution Another principle of the biological LoA is that the environment presents obstacles & challenges for each individual. In essence, those that adapt have a better chance of survival & having offspring which allows their genes to be passed down.

Theory of Natural Selection Members of a species acquire adaptive behaviors to survive the ever-changing environment (those better suited for environment will breed and pass on characteristics) Adaption: Species develop characteristics that make it more competitive in its environment Charles Darwin (Galapagos Island, finches, beaks)  On the Origin of Species (He didn’t yet know of the biological process through which traits are inherited)  Descent of Man

The Descent of Man findings We humans share several behaviors with other animals  Mate selection  Love of mother for offspring  Self-preservation  Similar facial expressions as apes  Similar feelings as animals

Monkeys vs. Humans Tetsuro Matsuzawa (2007) Looked at spatial memory in young chimps Used 3 chimps that were taught to recognize the numbers 1-9 on a computer Humans and chimps saw number flashed on a touch screen monitor and then the numbers were covered with blank squares and then were asked to touch the squares in sequential order.

Findings Humans had more errors and less accuracy as numbers were flashed and replaced by squares quicker  As agriculture developed, spatial memory skills aren’t as important for finding food  Perhaps this skill was replaced by the ability to develop language Chimps had astonishing memory; no difference in their recall in relation to the amount of time that the numbers were replaced with squares.  Adaption for survival skills such as remembering where food and danger is located in the rain forest

Ethical Considerations Because research in human genetics looks to identify certain genes involved in hereditary diseases there can be some negative outcomes:  May pose risks to participates due to the link between genetic heritage and people’s life  Information obtained may cause stress to participants family  If misused, information can be stigmatizing which could lead the inability to get a job or health insurance.

Once again, notes last year over confidentiality should be revisited Aboriginal people may object to genetic studies Eugenics and other forms of discrimination is the cause. Consent and speaking to community leaders are a must for many aboriginal and ethnic groups.

Intelligence During the beginning of the 20 th century, governments and schools became very interested in one’s intellectual potential and the role genetics play in IQ Alfred Binet developed an intelligence test to help understand this concept better within the French educational system Research has shown that poverty plays a major role in the development of a child’s intelligence

The Bell Curve Book published in 1994 by Harvard professor Richard J. Herrnstein The debate about the role of genes and environment have to do with ethnic difference in intelligence is not yet resolved Media discussed the idea that there may be intergroup differences in intelligence, thus conferring the idea that the root of intelligence in debatable

The “g” factor Argued by Charles Spearman, there is a general intelligence factor that is the basis of all intelligence Rather than looking a specific educational subjects (history, math, etc.) Spearman’s intelligence test measures the following:  Spatial ability  Reasoning  Divergent Thinking  Verbal Fluency

Meta-analysis in Relation to IQ Tests Bouchard & McGue (1981) used 111 studies of IQ correlations between siblings from research around the world Found that the closer the kinship the higher correlation of IQ Meta-analysis: statistical synthesis of the data from a set of comparable studies of a problem that yields a quantitative summary of the pooled results

Minnesota Twin Study (Bouchard et al.) Longitudinal study, been going on since 1979 Most cross-cultural study to date (participants from across the world) Compares MZAs (identical twins raised apart) to MZTs (identical twins raised together) Mean age of MZAs was 41 (start of study), until this study most research was done with adolescents Twins completed 50 hours of testing and interviews

Findings Same person tested twice 87% Identical twins reared together 86% Identical twins reared apart 76% Fraternal twins reared together 55% Biological siblings reared together 47%

Conclusions 70% of intelligence can be attributed to genetics inheritance, the other 30% is due to other factors Much research has supported the MTS The size and nature of the sample has made it one of the most impressive study ever conducted

Criticisms of the MTS Relied on media cover for participants Ethical concerns about how twins were reunited No adequate control to establish the frequency of contact between the twins prior to the study “Equal environment assumption”  Cannot assume twins raised together experience the exact same environment (different friends, teachers, exposure to stimuli, etc.)

Adoption Studies for Intelligence Scarr & Weinberg (1977) and Horn et al. (1979) Researched parents that raised adopted and natural children Any significant differences in IQ between the adoptive and biological children would be attributed to genes No significant difference in IQ correlations were found Parents were wealthy, white, middle class and high IQs & adopted children were poor, lower-class backgrounds, and lower IQs

Environmental Role on IQ Wahlstein (1997) found that intelligence has a lot to do with environment and genetics Found that transferring an infant from a low SES to a home where parents had a high SES improved childhood IQ scores points (about one standard deviation) Enriched environment may raise IQ in children  Strong interaction between genes and the environment to produce intelligence level

Less Effort Hypothesis Hainer et al. (1988) used PET scans to see how much energy was used in solving problems vs. data recall  Helped decipher what intelligence is (based on knowledge or ability to solve problems) Those with higher IQs had lower metabolic rates when solving a reasoning problem in comparison to those with a low IQ  No difference in data recall Those with a higher IQ use less energy to think than those with lower IQs

IQs Change over Time Plomin & Petrill (1997) found that correlations between parent and child IQs change over time  Ages 4-6, 40% correlation  Early adulthood, 60% correlation  Older adults, 80% correlation Our genetic disposition pushes us towards environments that accentuate that disposition, thus leading to increased heritability throughout life SES seems to the most important environmental factors in IQ development

Flynn Effect James R. Flynn noticed a rise in average scores on intelligence tests in most parts of the world over the last century Ulric Neisser (1997) The America Scientist, average mean scores are going up about 3 points every decade (increase is even higher in abstract reasoning)  Better nutrition  Improved schooling  Different child-rearing practices  Increase in technology in modern life  Living a higher visual environment plays an important role in IQ scores Does this prove a real increase in IQ or just better understanding of intelligence and tests?

MENTAL PROCESSES Cognitive Level of Analysis

Cognitive Psychology Cognition (cognoscere) “to know” Ulric Neisser (1967)  “all the processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used.” Includes the structure and function of the mind How the human mind comes to know things about the world and how this knowledge is used Cognitive neuroscience: Combines the knowledge about the brain and knowledge about cognitive processes.

Cognitive Processes Cognitive Processes:  Perception  Thinking  Problem-Solving  Memory  Language  Attention Cognition is based on an individual’s mental representations of the world  Words  Images  Concepts Different experiences influence our mental representations

Principles of Cognitive Psychology 1.) Mental processes guide behavior  Bottom-up  Top-down  Output (behavior) 2.) The mind can be studied scientifically  Developing theories and using scientific research methods 3.) Cognitive processes are influenced by social and cultural factors  Schemas

Mental processes guide behavior (Principle 1) The mind is a complex “machine” using hardware (brain) and software (mental images or representations) Information input via bottom-up processing (from the senses) Information is processed in the mind via top- down processing (pre-stored information/memory) Output (behavior)

Cognitive Theories and Models in the Real World Subtle relationships between how people think about themselves and how they behave A person’s mindset is important to predicting his/her behavior People have fixed ideas about other people (stereotyping) which can lead to discrimination

Are memories infallible? The reconstructive nature of memory  We do not store exact copies of experiences; we outline events which are filled out with information when it is recalled The brain can fabricate illusions which seem so realistic we believe they are true False Memory:  We cannot distinguish between what we have experienced and what we have heard about an event

Perception Interpretation and organization of information from the senses to produce some meaningful experience of the world Perception of an ambiguous object or event is influenced by:  Context  Frequency  How recent What we think we objectively experience may in fact be a result of the brain’s interpretation of that object or event

The Mind Can Be Studied Scientifically (Principle 2) New findings can adjust original theories/models or they can also be rejected if empirical evidence no longer supports it Psychologists study cognition in laboratory settings as well as daily context  Previously, the experimental was assumed to be the most scientific method  In the 1960s, Ulric Neisser suggested that cognition cannot be isolated from our everyday experiences  Experimental tasks did not always resemble what people did in their daily lives

Studying the Mind Traditionally, controlled experiments were favored  Controlled variables Experimental research might suffer from artificiality Data is used to support/refute cognitive models Today more methods are used: Case studies  Incredible memory patients  Brain damaged patients (Localization functions) Imaging technology  Which areas of the brain are active when making decisions, how cognitive processes can be disruptive by brain damage (amnesia or Alzheimer patients)

Cognitive Processes are Influenced by Social & Cultural Factors (Principle 3) Frederic Bartlett coined the term schema (mental representation of knowledge) Interested in cultural schemas and how they impact remembering Discovered that people have difficulties remembering a story from another culture and they adjusted the story to fit in with their own cultural schemas Memory in not a tape recorder and we remember in terms of meaning and what makes sense to us, thus memory is subject to distortions

Mental Representations & Memory How we store images and ideas in memory We use mental representations to think, make plans, imagine, & daydream Self-representation: How you perceive who you are and how you look Mental representations are organized in categories which are stored in your memory Manipulating mental representations allows us to think about situations & predict possible outcomes  Make plans, calculate risks, create

Schemas and Schema Theory Schemas describe how specific knowledge is organized and stored in memory so it can be accessed and used when needed Schema theory: Cognitive theory about information processing Suggests that what we already know will influence the outcome of information processing because we humans are active processors of information We interpret and integrate information to make sense of experiences even if we are unaware of it When information is missing we fill in the blanks based on existing schemas or inventing information leading to mistakes (distortions)

Cognitive Schemas Networks of knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about particular aspects of the world Pre-stored mental representations Allows us to have expectations of what will happen  Imagination allows us to picture characters in book  book > movie What we already know affects the way we interpret events and store knowledge in our memory

Points to Remember About Cognitive Schemas Organize information about the world with fixed and variable slots; if slot is unspecified it is filled in by a “default value” (best guess) Can be related to form systems Active recognition devices (pattern recognition) Help predict future events based on the past Represent general knowledge rather than definitions

Schema Theory & Memory Processes Schema processing can affect memory at all stages Encoding: Transforming sensory information into meaningful memory Storage: Creating a biological trace of the encoded information in memory, which can be consolidated or lost Retrieval: Using stored information ENCODING Put into Memory STORAGE Maintain in Memory RETRIEVAL Recover from Memory

Evaluation of Schema Theory (Support) Research supports the idea that schemas affect cognitive processes such as memory Useful in understanding how people categorize information, interpret stories, & make inferences Contributed to understanding of memory distortions as well as social cognition Social psychologists use social schemas to help explain stereotyping and prejudice

Evaluation of Schema Theory (Limitations) It is not entirely clear how schemas are acquired and how they actually influence cognitive processes Cohen (1993) said that the concept of schemas is too vague to be useful yet researchers use it to explain cognitive processing Daniel Gilbert argues that the brain is a “wonderful magician but a lousy scientist” by looking for meaningful patterns but does not check for accuracy

Multi-Store Model Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) created the most influential information processing model thus far Based off of two assumptions: 1.) Memory consists of a number of separate stores/types  The memory stores are seen as components that operate in conjunction with permanent memory through processes 2.) Memory processes are sequential; one must happen before another

Memory Storage Processes Attention:  Pay attention to sensory input in order to remember it Coding:  Give material a form that enables you to remember it Rehearsal:  Keeping material active in memory via repetition until it can be stored

Steps of the Multi-store Model 1. Sensory memory: information from the world  Stays here only for seconds and only a small portion will transfer to STM  Modality specific: related to different senses (hearing & vision) 2. Short-term memory (STM) store:  7 item limit for a duration of 6-12 seconds  Quickly lost if not given attention 3. Rehearsal is necessary for long-term memory

Long-term Memory (LTM) Storehouse of information Since we do not know how much info can be stored, LTM is believed to have unlimited capacity and for an indefinite duration Material is not exact (outline) and memory can be distorted due to schemas “filling in gaps”

Working Memory Model Baddeley & Hitch (1974) based their model off of the multi-store model Challenged the idea that STM is a single store STM includes several components  Central executive  Episodic buffer  Phonological loop  Visuospatial sketchpad

Central Executive Controlling system which monitors and coordinates the operations of the other components (slave systems) Most important part of the working memory model Limited capacity and is modality free (can process any sensory information) Attentional control is the most important job of the central executive

Attentional Control Happens in two ways: 1.) Automatic level:  Based on habit and controlled automatically by stimuli in the environment  Includes routine procedures 2.) Supervisory level:  Deals with emergencies or creates new strategies when old ones are no longer sufficient  Reactions

Episodic Buffer Consciously trying to remember details Acts as a temporary and passive display store until the information is needed (similar to a TV screen) Processing of the information takes place in other parts of the system Here’s your picture

Phonological Loop Divided into 2 components 1.) Articulatory control system:  Inner voice which holds information in verbal form  Remembering a telephone number and repeating it  Holds words until you are ready to speak 2.) Phonological store:  Inner ear which holds speech-based material in phonological form  Memory only lasts seconds if it is not refreshed by the articulatory system  Receives info. directly from sensory memory in the form of auditory material and from LTM in the form of verbal information and the articulatory control system

Visuospatial Sketchpad Inner eye Deals with visual and spatial information from the sensory memory or LTM

Evidence of Working Memory Most contemporary research accepts the idea of working memory Experiments using dual-task techniques/interference tasks support the model  Participants were asked to carry out a cognitive task that used most of the capacity of their working memory  Telling a story to a person while also trying to learn a list of numbers  If the two tasks interfere with each other so that one or both are impaired, it is assumed that both tasks use the same component in the STM

Working Memory Model Multi-store Model More satisfactory explanation of storage and processing than the STM component of the multi- store model Include active storage and processing which helps understand all sorts of cognitive tasks (reading comprehension and mental math) Explains the idea of multi- tasking (performing different cognitive tasks at the same time without disruption) Assumes that mental processes are passive Working Memory Model vs. Multi-store Model

Working Memory in Children Pickering & Gathercole (2001) used the Working Memory Test Battery for Children Found that there is an improvement in performance in working memory capacity from the age of 5 until about 15 Working memory during childhood varies widely across individuals of the same age Provides evidence that problems with working memory is associated with problems in academic performance Problems with the phonological loop have been linked to math and reading abilities

Visual and Spatial Memory Linked to Math Skills Holmes et al. (2008) studied the association between visuospatial sketchpad capacity and math attainment in relation to age Samples: Ages 7-8 and 9-10 Studied age differences in relationship between visual and spatial memory and the range of math skills Findings: Math performance could be predicted based off of the performance on the visual patterns test

SOCIOCULTURAL Level of Analysis

Principles of Sociocultural LoA 1. Since humans are social animals, we have the basic need to “belong” 2. Culture influences behavior 3. Since humans are social animals, we have a social self  Not only do we have an individual identity, but also a collective/social identity 4. People’s views of the world are resistant to change (ideological immunity)

Research: Sociocultural LoA Goal: To see how people interact with each other Usually it doesn’t make much sense to use experiments  Majority is in qualitative methods Want to study the behavior of “participants” in realistic ways Naturalistic, “as it really is”; in environments in which the behavior is likely to occur  Participant observation  Interviews  Focus groups

Thoughts Worth Mentioning About Research In the past, laboratory experiments were used because they were considered the most scientific way of collecting data Although modern techniques are more “real” they are descriptive data therefore they cannot explain cause-and-effect (causation) relationships Participant observation is most common to “see the world through the eyes of the people being studied.”

Covert Overt Researcher does not inform participants that they are being observed Deceit is used to gain “trust” of members of the group Intentions are not disclosed and behaviors are recorded without obtaining informed consent Can’t take notes which causes researcher to rely on memory leading to distortion of data Interviews can’t be used for fear of being discovered Participants know they are being observed Gain trust of the group being observed Can use interviews to gather more information Participant Observation