Objective 3.1 Explain social learning theory, making reference to two relevant studies.

Social and cultural influences If one assumes that cognitive processes follow universal laws then all humans all over the world, regardless of environment and culture, would perform the same cognitive tasks with the same results. Is this the case? Human cognition is socially and culturally dependent – i.e. Cognitive abilities are influenced by the social and cultural context in which people live. What does this mean? Explain this concept.

Social and cultural influences  Although the processes – memory, perception, language etc. may be universal (e.g. etic concepts of learning) how they function in the context of social and cultural situations may differ (emic concepts of learning).  For example, the concept of memory may be universal, but specific cultures may have specific ways of categorizing information (i.e. cultural schemas). You can refer to Bartlett’s “War of the ghosts” to support this statement.

Social cognitive theory (SCT)  Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) describes learning in terms of the interrelationship between behavior, environmental factors, and cognitive factors.  It also provides the theoretical framework for interactive learning used to develop both Constructivism (Piaget) and Cooperative Learning. It is the foundation of social learning theory.

Social cognitive theory (SCT)  According to SCT, the learner acquires knowledge as his or her environment converges with personal characteristics and personal mental schemas.  New experiences are evaluated in comparison to the past; prior experiences help to subsequently guide and inform the learner as to how the present should be investigated. (these mental representations guide behavior, as previously stated).

Social affects on learning  Social learning refers to the acquisition of mental representations that happens exclusively or primarily by interactions in a social group.  Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation, and modeling.  Among others Albert Bandura is considered the leading proponent of this theory.

Basic concepts of social learning There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory.  First is the idea that people can learn through observation.  Next is the idea that internal mental states are an essential part of this process. Meaning that the ability to form memories from what you observe are key to learning. Thus, biological factors can interfere with social learning. (Read more:  Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change in behavior.

Learning by Observation  Higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing and imitating others.  Example: The monkey on the right imitates the monkey on the left in touching the pictures in a certain order to obtain a reward. Hence the phrase monkey see monkey do. 8

Reviewing mirror Neurons As previously discussed, mirror neurons in the brains of animals and humans are active during observational learning. Thus, we can create a schema of how to behave in social situations simply by observing a behavior 9

Imitation Onset  Learning by observation begins early in life. This 14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV in pulling a toy apart.  This would suggest that we can create memory models of how to act, respond, and adapt to our environment simply by seeing something occur. How can this positively and negatively influence our behavior from a cognitive perspective? 10

Bandura's Experiments Albert Bandura’s research in the 1970’s laid the foundation for social learning. In his famous " Bobo doll" studies, Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in other people. Video on Bandura’s original study bobo-doll-experiment bobo-doll-experiment Original Study:

Bandura's Experiments  The children in Bandura’s studies observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll.  When the children were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions they had previously observed. (This can be used for the ethical considerations question). 12

Bandura's Experiments Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:  A live mode l, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior. (Seeing someone perform the behavior) What are real world examples of learning from a live model? 13

Bandura's Experiments Three basic models of observational learning:  A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior. What are examples of learning from a verbal instructional model? 14

Bandura's Experiments This is the foundation of education. Thus, students learn from teacher descriptions and explanation. This is also true with sports, and other verbal learning. 15

Bandura's Experiments Bandura’s three basic models of observational learning:  A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books, films, television programs, or online media.  Thus, you can learn how to behave in a social situation simply from watching it on a television, or in a movie. As young adults, are we still susceptible to learning from symbolic models? 16

Intrinsic motivation: The cognitive component to social learning.  Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to influence learning and behavior.  He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal reward, such as pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment.  Thus, we can create mental representations for things that we find rewarding and gravitate towards these behaviors. 17

Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behavior.  While behaviorists believed that learning led to a permanent change in behavior, as previously stated, observational learning demonstrates that people can learn new information without demonstrating new behaviors.  In other words, you can learn something socially without personally showing the behavior. 18

Applications of Observational Learning  Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects.  In other words, his model suggests that we can socially emulate positive and negative behaviors. 19

Applications of Observational Learning  Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects.  In other words, his model suggests that we can socially emulate positive and negative behaviors. 20

Children modeling violent behavior Most research has drawn from Bandura’s social learning theory to explain the link between exposure to violence in childhood and later perpetration of violence with an intimate partner or child. Studies have demonstrated that witnessing inter- parental violence as a child is related to number of negative outcomes, including violent and aggressive behavior as an adult (Fantuzzo, DePaola,Lambert, & Martino, 1991; Graham-Bermann & Levendosky, 1998; Straus, Gelles, & Steinmetz, 1980). Can growing with aggressive/abusive parents act as a model for adult behavior? 21

Children modeling violent behavior Most research has drawn from Bandura’s social learning theory to explain the link between exposure to violence in childhood and later perpetration of violence with an intimate partner or child. Studies have demonstrated that witnessing inter- parental violence as a child is related to number of negative outcomes, including violent and aggressive behavior as an adult (Fantuzzo, DePaola,Lambert, & Martino, 1991; Graham-Bermann & Levendosky, 1998; Straus, Gelles, & Steinmetz, 1980). Can growing with aggressive/abusive parents act as a model for adult behavior? 22

Modeling violent behavior Murrell, Christoff, & Henning (2005) looked to identify whether modeling behavior from your childhood would have an impact on adult behavior. The researchers chose to examine a specific occurrence, weapon use, due to the severity of the behavior. A main intent of this study was to raise questions about the extensive use of weapons in violent families. 23

Murrell, Christoff, & Henning (2005) Participants were 362 male domestic violence offenders court-ordered to undergo assessment of the likelihood of recidivism. Selected items from the Conflict Tactics Scale (Straus, 1979)(a way to measure psychological and physical abuse in relationships) were used to assess childhood witnessing and adult engagement in a target violent behavior. 24

Murrell, Christoff, & Henning (2005) Participants were 362 male domestic violence offenders court-ordered to undergo assessment of the likelihood of recidivism. Selected items from the Conflict Tactics Scale (Straus, 1979)(a way to measure psychological and physical abuse in relationships) were used to assess childhood witnessing and adult engagement in a target violent behavior. 25

Murrell, Christoff, & Henning (2005) The results indicated that men who reported witnessing threat or use of a weapon in parental violence were more likely than not to have threatened to use or have actually used a weapon against an intimate partner. The results of this study support the supposition that what we consciously or subconsciously learn from our childhood experiences can shape behaviors in adults. 26

Creating negative and maladaptive social schemas.  Researchers argue that social experiences (whether through live models, verbal models or symbolic models) can cause people to form a negative (or positive) social schema.  These schemas, also called working models and knowledge structures, consist of organized elements of past behaviors and experiences that form a relatively cohesive and persistent body of knowledge which guides one’s subsequent perception and appraisal of the world (Segal, 1988).  How can our experiences (or encoding/retrieval of memories) cause us to have negative mental representations or models? 27

Ecological validity of social learning theory  In addition to influencing other psychologists, Bandura's social learning theory has had other important implication in the field of education.  Today, both teachers and parents recognize the importance of modeling appropriate behaviors: as well as creating positive social schemas that guide behavior.  Many children have been shown to learn social schemas from teacher and parent models. 28

Further research on social and cultural affects on cognitive processes  SOCIAL LEARNING AND DEVIANT BEHAVIOR: A SPECIFIC TEST OF A GENERAL THEORY ( RONALDL. AKERS,M ARVIND. KROHNL, ONNL ANZA-KADUCE) ng%20and%20Deviant%20Behavior.pdf ng%20and%20Deviant%20Behavior.pdf  Cultural Influences in Decision Making: David F. Noble, Ph.D., Jonathan K. Sander, Catherine M. Obenshain  Cultural Influences on Memory: Angela H. Gutchess and Allie Indeck 29