Chapter 21 Part 6 The French Revolution The Age of Voltaire

Napoleon Italian descent Italian descent From a prominent family on the French island of Corsica From a prominent family on the French island of Corsica Was a military genius (specialized in artillery) Was a military genius (specialized in artillery) A big fan of the Enlightenment and the Revolution A big fan of the Enlightenment and the Revolution Supported the Jacobins Supported the Jacobins Advanced rapidly in the army: talented AND many vacancies due to the emigrees Advanced rapidly in the army: talented AND many vacancies due to the emigrees

Two distinct periods of rule : Was First Consul during the Consulate Period : Was First Consul during the Consulate Period : The Empire Period : The Empire Period

The Consulate Period Took power December 25, 1799 Took power December 25, 1799 Title: First Consul Title: First Consul Constitution gave him supreme power Constitution gave him supreme power Acted as a dictator Acted as a dictator Demanded loyalty to the state, rewarded ability, created an effective hierarchical bureaucracy Demanded loyalty to the state, rewarded ability, created an effective hierarchical bureaucracy BUT wealth determined status BUT wealth determined status

Napoleon: the last and the greatest Enlightened Despot Because his reforms were widespread and long- lasting (as he conquered Europe he brought the Napoleonic Code with him) Because his reforms were widespread and long- lasting (as he conquered Europe he brought the Napoleonic Code with him)

Napoleonic Code Provided legal unity Provided legal unity Was the first clear and complete codification of French law Was the first clear and complete codification of French law Was the longest-lasting of his reforms Was the longest-lasting of his reforms Included a civil code of criminal procedure, a commercial code, & a penal code Included a civil code of criminal procedure, a commercial code, & a penal code Emphasized the protection of private property Emphasized the protection of private property

The Napoleonic Code Provided for a strong central government and administrative unity Provided for a strong central government and administrative unity Included many of the reforms of the Revolution: Included many of the reforms of the Revolution: Equality before the law: no more estates, legal classes, privileges, hereditary offices, guilds.. Equality before the law: no more estates, legal classes, privileges, hereditary offices, guilds.. Freedom of religion: State will be secular Freedom of religion: State will be secular Property rights Property rights Abolished serfdom Abolished serfdom Women given inheritance rights Women given inheritance rights

Women Were denied equal status with men Were denied equal status with men Women and children were legally dependent on husband/father Women and children were legally dependent on husband/father Divorce was even more difficult to obtain that during the Revolution Divorce was even more difficult to obtain that during the Revolution Women could not buy/sell property or begin a business without the consent of their husbands Women could not buy/sell property or begin a business without the consent of their husbands Incomes of wives belonged to husbands Incomes of wives belonged to husbands Penalties for adultery more severe for women than men Penalties for adultery more severe for women than men

Careers open to talent Theoretically citizens were able to rise in government offices according to their abilities (but wealth was really the key to status) Theoretically citizens were able to rise in government offices according to their abilities (but wealth was really the key to status) Napoleon created a new imperial nobility for talented generals and government officials Napoleon created a new imperial nobility for talented generals and government officials

The New Imperial Nobility The government rewarded wealthy people who served the state with pensions, property or titles The government rewarded wealthy people who served the state with pensions, property or titles The middle class DID benefit The middle class DID benefit Over ½ of the titles of the titles granted went to folks in the military Over ½ of the titles of the titles granted went to folks in the military Between Napoleon awarded 3,6000 titles Between Napoleon awarded 3,6000 titles BUT the # of nobles in France only 1/7 of what it was before the Revolution BUT the # of nobles in France only 1/7 of what it was before the Revolution

Offices Could Not be Bought or Sold Amnesty was granted to returning emigrees in exchange for an oath of loyalty Amnesty was granted to returning emigrees in exchange for an oath of loyalty Many were given important posts in government Many were given important posts in government Foreign “notables” were also able to serve (Italy, the Netherlands) Foreign “notables” were also able to serve (Italy, the Netherlands)

The Working Class Still denied the right to strike or unionize Still denied the right to strike or unionize But now…not politically significant But now…not politically significant

Religious Reforms Napoleon wanted to make peace with the Catholic Church to weaken its link with the monarchists Napoleon wanted to make peace with the Catholic Church to weaken its link with the monarchists Understood that religion would help the French people accept economic inequities Understood that religion would help the French people accept economic inequities (Marx later: religion is the opiate of the masses) (Marx later: religion is the opiate of the masses)

The Concordat of 1801 The Pope renounced claims to the Church property that was lost in the early years of the Revolution (settled the issue of the peasant- landowners’ divided allegiances) The Pope renounced claims to the Church property that was lost in the early years of the Revolution (settled the issue of the peasant- landowners’ divided allegiances) The French Government could nominate or depose bishops The French Government could nominate or depose bishops The Refractory Clergy (who had survived) would replace those priests who had taken an oath of loyalty to the state The Refractory Clergy (who had survived) would replace those priests who had taken an oath of loyalty to the state

The Concordat of 1801 Catholics could worship in public Catholics could worship in public Church seminaries were reopened Church seminaries were reopened Legal toleration was extended to: Catholics, Protestants, Jews, Atheists …all had the same civil rights Legal toleration was extended to: Catholics, Protestants, Jews, Atheists …all had the same civil rights Replaced the “Revolutionary Calendar” with the Christian calendar Replaced the “Revolutionary Calendar” with the Christian calendar

Separation of Church and State Napoleon made certain to appoint as many Protestants and others to high government positions as Catholics Napoleon made certain to appoint as many Protestants and others to high government positions as Catholics

Economic Unity The Bank of France (est. 1800) served the interests of the state and financial oligarchy The Bank of France (est. 1800) served the interests of the state and financial oligarchy Balanced the national budget Balanced the national budget Established sound currency Established sound currency Made public credit available Made public credit available Increased employment Increased employment Lowered taxes on farmers Lowered taxes on farmers

Economics under Napoleon Guaranteed that the Church property that had been seized and sold to peasants would remain in the hands of the peasants Guaranteed that the Church property that had been seized and sold to peasants would remain in the hands of the peasants Created an independent peasantry…would become the backbone of French democracy Created an independent peasantry…would become the backbone of French democracy Tax collections became more efficient Tax collections became more efficient

Economics Le Chaplier Law of 1791 was maintained: Le Chaplier Law of 1791 was maintained: Workers could not form guilds OR trade unions Workers could not form guilds OR trade unions

Education Established a system of public education under state control Established a system of public education under state control Rigorous standards Rigorous standards Available to the masses Available to the masses Secondary and higher education was to prepare young men for porfessions or government service Secondary and higher education was to prepare young men for porfessions or government service

Education Education became a key in determining social standing Education became a key in determining social standing One system for those who could spend 12 or more years at school One system for those who could spend 12 or more years at school The other for boys who would enter the work force at age 12 to 14 The other for boys who would enter the work force at age 12 to 14

A Police State Citizens were under continuous surveillance by government spies Citizens were under continuous surveillance by government spies After 1810 political “suspects” were held in state prisons….like they had during the Reign of Terror After 1810 political “suspects” were held in state prisons….like they had during the Reign of Terror By ,500 political prisoners were being held By ,500 political prisoners were being held

A Police State The most notorious incident: The most notorious incident: The 1804 arrest and execution of a Bourbon: the Duke of Enghien The 1804 arrest and execution of a Bourbon: the Duke of Enghien He was accused of taking part in a plot to overthrow Napoleon He was accused of taking part in a plot to overthrow Napoleon There was absolutely no evidence of his involvement There was absolutely no evidence of his involvement

Problems with Napoleon’s Reforms Women did not benefit…serious gender inequity Women did not benefit…serious gender inequity Workers denied unions Workers denied unions Individual liberty was repressed in favor of absolutism and the creation of a police state Individual liberty was repressed in favor of absolutism and the creation of a police state Much nepotism Much nepotism

Napoleonic Wars during the Consulate Era Generally short and distinct Generally short and distinct Only England was at war with France continuously Only England was at war with France continuously All four Great Powers did not fight Napoleon TOGETHER until 1813 (Russia, Prussia, Austria, England) after Napoleon conquered Italy All four Great Powers did not fight Napoleon TOGETHER until 1813 (Russia, Prussia, Austria, England) after Napoleon conquered Italy Above nations were sometimes compelled to ally with Napoleon Above nations were sometimes compelled to ally with Napoleon

The War of the Second Coalition The Second Coalition: Austria, England, Russia The Second Coalition: Austria, England, Russia 1798 Napoleon’s navy had been destroyed by the English (Lord Nelson) in the Battle of the Nile 1798 Napoleon’s navy had been destroyed by the English (Lord Nelson) in the Battle of the Nile But in the end, Napoleon’s army was victorious But in the end, Napoleon’s army was victorious

The Treaty of Luneville Britain moved off of the European continent Britain moved off of the European continent Austria lost its Italian possessions to Napoleon Austria lost its Italian possessions to Napoleon German territory on the west bank of the Rhine became part of France German territory on the west bank of the Rhine became part of France Russia had tried to take advantage of the turmoil by gaining a foothold in the Mediterranean but withdrew from western Europe due to a British blockade Russia had tried to take advantage of the turmoil by gaining a foothold in the Mediterranean but withdrew from western Europe due to a British blockade

1802 The Treaty of Amiens France and Britain France and Britain Brits agreed to return Trinidad and some Caribbean islands to France that it had taken in 1793 Brits agreed to return Trinidad and some Caribbean islands to France that it had taken in 1793 Had hopes that peace with France would enable Britain to increase its trade with the European continent Had hopes that peace with France would enable Britain to increase its trade with the European continent

Treaty of Ameins By this time Napoleon had the former Austrian Netherlands, the West bank of the Rhine, the Netherlands and most of Italy By this time Napoleon had the former Austrian Netherlands, the West bank of the Rhine, the Netherlands and most of Italy The Brits were unable to increase their trade with the European continent The Brits were unable to increase their trade with the European continent The Brits violated the treaty by failing to evacuate Malta causing the truce to end (1805) The Brits violated the treaty by failing to evacuate Malta causing the truce to end (1805)

In the meantime Napoleon reorganized The confederation of Switzerland Napoleon reorganized The confederation of Switzerland Sent a large army to Haiti to re-enslave the population Sent a large army to Haiti to re-enslave the population French forces were devastated by disease French forces were devastated by disease Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States Napoleon sold Louisiana to the United States