DC Circuits Muhajir Ab. Rahim School of Mechatronic Engineering Universiti Malaysia Perlis

What is Electric Current (1/2) An electric current is a flow of microscopic particles called ELECTRONS flowing through wires and electronic components. It can be likened to the flow of water through pipes. As water is pushed through pipes by a pump, electric current is pushed through wires by a battery. A basic law of the universe is that like charges repel and unlike attract. Two negatives will repel each other. A negative and a positive will attract each other. An electron has a negative charge. The negative (-ve) terminal of a battery will push negative electrons along a wire. The positive (+ve) terminal of a battery will attract negative electrons along a wire.

What is Electric Current (2/2) Electric current will therefore flow from the -ve terminal of a battery, through the lamp, to the positive terminal. This is called electron current flow. The current flows round the circuit. In some books current is said to flow from +ve to -ve. This was guessed at before the electron was discovered. They guessed wrong! This is called conventional current flow.

Current in Circuits The total current entering a junction equals the total current leaving that junction

Ohm's Law (1/2) The voltmeter is connected across the resistor, to measure the voltage across the resistor. The ammeter is connected in series with the resistor, to measure the current flowing around the circuit and through the resistor. Mr Ohm discovered that if you double the voltage across the resistor then the current through it doubles. If you halve the voltage then the current is halved. This means that the current is PROPORTIONAL to the voltage.

Ohm's Law (2/2) He also found that if you double the value of the resistor then the current through it is halved. If the value of the resistor is halved the the current is doubled. Thus the current is INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL to the resistance.

Resistors in Series Resistors in series are connected in line. The same current flows through them all. The total opposition to the flow of current is called the EQUIVALENT resistance. To find the value of the equivalent resistance we simply add the values. In this case it is 30 ohms. Note that, as a quick check on calculations, the value of the equivalent resistance is always higher than the value of the highest value resistance. If these resistors were connected across a 30 Volt battery then Ohms Law says 1 amp would flow.

Resistors in Parallel Resistors in parallel are connected across one another. They all have the same voltage across them. To find the equivalent resistance (the total resistance offered to the flow of current) we invert the values and add them. Then we invert the result. A quick check on your answer is that it should be smaller in value than the value of the smallest resistor.

Resistor Networks (1/3) In the diagram we have two sets of 10 ohms in series with 15 ohms. These can be replaced by two 25 ohms as shown in the next diagram.

Resistor Networks (2/3) The two 25 ohms are in parallel and can be replaced by 12.5 ohms.

Resistor Networks (3/3) The two 5 ohms are in parallel so can be simplified to 2.5 ohms. See the next diagram. The 12.5 and the 2.5 are in series so that the equivalent resistance for the network is 15 ohms.

Voltages in a Circuits In the diagram the total series resistance = 30 ohms. The current flowing is 30 volts/30 ohms = 1 amp. Thus the current through the 5 ohm resistor is 1 amp. Therefore the voltage across the 5 ohm is 1 amp x 5 ohm = 5 volts. Similarly the voltage across R 2 is 10 volts. The voltage across R 3 is 15 volts. If you add these three voltages = 30 volts. This is the same as the battery voltage.

Series Parallel Batteries A B C A B C

Voltage Divider (1/4) In a voltage dividers a specific combinations of series resistors are used to "divide" a voltage into precise proportions as part of a voltage measurement device

Voltage Divider (2/4) One device frequently used as a voltage-dividing component is the potentiometer, which is a resistor with a movable element positioned by a manual knob or lever. The movable element, typically called a wiper, makes contact with a resistive strip of material (commonly called the slidewire if made of resistive metal wire) at any point selected by the manual control.

Voltage Divider (3/4) The wiper contact is the left-facing arrow symbol drawn in the middle of the vertical resistor element. As it is moved up, it contacts the resistive strip closer to terminal 1 and further away from terminal 2, lowering resistance to terminal 1 and raising resistance to terminal 2. As it is moved down, the opposite effect results. The resistance as measured between terminals 1 and 2 is constant for any wiper position.

Voltage Divider (4/4) Shown here are internal illustrations of two potentiometer types, rotary and linear

Divider Circuits V D = R 2 V s R 1 +R 2 where V s = supply voltage R 1,R 2 = divider resistors VsVs R1R1 R2R2 VDVD In an instrumentation device, divider circuits is used to provide conversion of resistance variation into a voltage variation. The voltage of such a divider is given by the well-known relationship R 2 is a sensor which can change its resistance value when responding to physical or environment changes.

Exercise The divider circuit has R 1 = 10kΩ and V s = 5.00V. Suppose R 2 is a sensor whose resistance varies from 4 to 12kΩ, find the minimum and maximum of V D. For R 2 = 4kΩ, we have V D = (4kΩ)(5V) = 1.43V 10kΩ + 4kΩ For R 2 = 12kΩ, the voltage is V D = (12kΩ)(5V) = 2.73V 10kΩ + 12kΩ VsVs R1R1 R2R2 VDVD

Bridge Circuits (1/4) Bridge circuits make use of a null- balance meter to compare two voltages, just like the laboratory balance scale compares two weights and indicates when they are equal. The standard bridge circuit, often called a Wheatstone bridge. When the voltage between point 1 and the negative side of the battery is equal to the voltage between point 2 and the negative side of the battery, the null detector will indicate zero and the bridge is said to be "balanced"

R2R2 R4R4 Bridge Circuits (2/4) VsVs R1R1 R2R2 VDVD Voltage divider VsVs R1R1 R3R3 VDVD Wheatstone bridge

Bridge Circuits (3/4) In the diagram, the 15 volts will be divided across the two resistors, according their proportion of the total resistance, 15k. For the 5k this will be (5k/15k) x 15 volts = 5 volts. For the 10k it will be (10k/15k) x 15 volts = 10 volts R1R1 R2R2

Bridge Circuits (4/4) Here, we have the same potential divider plus R 3 and R 4 across the battery. This is a BRIDGE circuit invented by Mr. Wheatstone Using the same calculations as for R 1 and R 2, we find that the voltage across R 3 = 5 volts and across R 4 = 10 volts. The voltage has been divided in the same proportions. This is because the ratio R 1 /R 2 is the same as the ratio R 3 /R 4, that is, 1:2. The meter, connected between points A and B will indicate zero. This is because the voltage at both terminals of the meter is the same, so the voltage across the meter is zero. The bridge is said to be BALANCED. So we can say that when the ratio R 1 /R 2 = R 3 /R 4 the bridge is balanced. If the two ratios are not the same, then the voltages at the two terminals of the meter will be different. The meter will now give a reading, and we can say that the bridge is unbalanced. R3R3 R4R4 R1R1 R2R2

Wheatstone Bridge D is a voltage detector used to compare the potentials of point a and b The potential difference, ∆V, between point a and b is simply, ∆V = V a - V b D ab c R1R1 R2R2 R3R3 R4R4 V ∆V= V a - V b V a = potential of point a with respect to c V b = potential of point b with respect to c ∆V = R 3 R 2 = R 1 R 4 *to nullify the detector

Exercise 1.If a Wheatstone bridge nulls with R 1 = 1kΩ, R 2 = 842Ω, and R 3 = 500Ω, find the value R 4 2.The resistors in a bridge are given by R 1 = R 2 = R 3 =120Ω and R 4 =121Ω. If the supply is 10.0V, find the voltage offset. D ab c R1R1 R2R2 R3R3 R4R4 V

Solution 1.Because the bridge is nulled, by using equation R 1 R 4 = R 3 R 2 R 4 = R 3 R 2 = (500Ω)(842Ω) = 421Ω R Ω 2.We find the offset from ∆V = V. R 3 R 2 – R 1 R 4 (R 1 + R 3 ).(R 2 + R 4 ) ∆V = 10V. (120Ω)(120Ω) - (120Ω)(121Ω) = mV (120Ω + 120Ω).(120Ω + 121Ω) ∆V=