Arguments (lines of reasoning) Sue First With thanks to Ann Winter

What is an argument??? An argument is the offering of reasons or evidence in defending of a statement o conclusion we believe to be true. The basic structure is reasons or premises supporting a conclusion or claim Aim is to dig below the surface to reveal the soundness and strength of the argument / claim

Techniques to strengthen an argument Providing irrefutable reasons or guarding premises which are less subject to criticism Offering assurances concerning debatable claims Discounting criticisms in advance

Persuasion – Argument checklist State a point of view (POV) in 1 brief, clear sentence Offer evidence or examples to support your pov Source of evidence eg evidence hierarchy/irrefutable Consider contradictions/contrasting pov Demonstrate convincing why your pov is the best Dead parrot sketch

Chunk it down

The Toulmin Model Claim: the position or claim being argued for; the conclusion of the argument. Grounds: reasons or supporting evidence, the ‘truth’ that bolsters the claim. Warrant: the principle, provision or chain of reasoning that connects the grounds/reason to the claim. Backing: support, justification, reasons to back up the warrant. Rebuttal/Reservation: exceptions to the claim; description and rebuttal of counter-examples and counter-arguments. Qualification: specification of limits to claim, warrant and backing. The degree of conditionality asserted (usually, always, sometimes)

The Toulmin Model of Argumentation The Toulmin model asserts that most arguments consist of the following 6 parts:

Toulmin model 1. Argument = CLAIM 2. Reasons = GROUNDS 3. Premise = WARRANT 4. Provenance of warrant = BACKING

Language use when discussing relevant parts of an argument Since …. And so…. Therefore….. Because….. If….. Then……

The Since-Then-Because Triangle model (3 part argument) Then – position/conclusion CLAIM Since – evidence GROUNDS Because - reason PREMISE OR WARRANT Mitchell S & Riddle M 2003 Improving the quality of argument in Higher Education Middlesex University London

Two or One part arguments Two part argument More dynamic One part argument – contentious positions

Argument framework Main argument Reasons/evidence in favour Evidence and examples Opposing evidence Reasons and evidence Reasons why my arguments are stronger than opposing ones Conclusions

Argument/contradiction/disagreement Argument clinic

Language used in a line of reasoning Argument: Opening sentence- argument: First, first of all; to begin with; initially, Similarity in evidence: equally, likewise, in the same way, indeed, correspondingly, in the same line Stronger reinforcing similarity: furthermore, moreover, indeed, what is more Reinforcing with different reasons: also, in addition, as well as, not only Alternative evidence: alternatively, a different perspective on this.., others argue that.., it might be argued that.., Rebutting alternative evidence: however, on the other hand, nevertheless, in any case, despite this, in spite of this, even though Reporting verbs: suggest, argue, claim, propose, think, describe, note, analyse, discuss, show, explain, point out, demonstrate, report, develop Contrasting: by contrast, on the other hand, in fact Concluding: therefore, in conclusion, thus, from this we can infer/deduce

Flawed reasoning No relationship/correlation between trends Lack of necessary conditions Unwarranted leaps Emotive language Attacking authors

In conclusion Bad reasoning