Dr. Afxendiou AP Comparative Government and Politics Sachem North High School THE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF NIGERIA

Introduction to Nigeria Most populous African nation with about 140 million peopleMost populous African nation with about 140 million people Strong democracy movements but tendency to totalitarian military ruleStrong democracy movements but tendency to totalitarian military rule Has vast resources, including one of the largest oil deposits in the worldHas vast resources, including one of the largest oil deposits in the world 60% of the people live in poverty60% of the people live in poverty Religious tensions:Religious tensions: 50% Muslims50% Muslims 40% Christians40% Christians 10% indigenous religions10% indigenous religions Lack of coherent national identity to hold all ethnicities togetherLack of coherent national identity to hold all ethnicities together

SOVEREIGNTY, AUTHORITY, AND POWER “the national question” – no agreement on who should rule and how “the national question” – no agreement on who should rule and how –How should the country be governed? Still the major issue –Not able to come to solution by mutual agreement –Often resort to military force and authoritarian rulers in their attempts to solve the issue

SOVEREIGNTY, AUTHORITY, AND POWER CONSTITUTIONALISM – the acceptance of a constitution as a guiding set of principles CONSTITUTIONALISM – the acceptance of a constitution as a guiding set of principles –1st constitution written in 1914, 8 more written, the last one in 1999 but with many amendments made to it since then  Attempts at providing a blueprint for the operation of government but none are followed for very long  Constitutionalism eludes Nigeria

SOVEREIGNTY, AUTHORITY, AND POWER LEGITIMACY LEGITIMACY –As a fairly young country, Nigeria needs to establish its legitimacy  Gained independence in 1960 –The ‘national question’ is a the heart of legitimacy issues –Strong tendency for fragmentation – to fall apart along ethnic, regional and religious lines –Military, even though it has been used for oppression, is an important source of stability as a national institution

SOVEREIGNTY, AUTHORITY, AND POWER LEGITIMACY LEGITIMACY –This has given the military legitimacy to rule, either by over-throwing governments or by military personnel (generals) running for the presidency –Legitimacy of government among the people is very low – they have little to no trust in their leaders’ abilities to run the state  History of corruption among leaders has alienated people from their government

SOVEREIGNTY, AUTHORITY, AND POWER LEGITIMACY LEGITIMACY –In the north regions the shari’a is a source of legitimacy, especially since 1999 when it became public law in some areas –Hampered due to failure of leadership

SOVEREIGNTY, AUTHORITY, AND POWER POLITICAL TRADITIONS POLITICAL TRADITIONS –Historical influences  PRE-COLONIAL: –Introduction of Islam early on brought Islamic principles and Islamic law to the region and influence politics and policymaking by the elites especially in the North –Kinship-based politics – especially in the South; often village level –Democratic impulses – from the traditions of the Yoruba and Igbo peoples; “the principle of accountability” – rulers were expected to seek advise and to govern in the interests of the people. Leaders were seen as representatives of the people, responsible for the good of the community, not their own well-being

SOVEREIGNTY, AUTHORITY, AND POWER POLITICAL TRADITIONS POLITICAL TRADITIONS –Historical influences  THE COLONIAL ERA ( ): –Authoritarian Rule-British colonizers ruled indirectly by leaving chiefs and other natives to rule their governments but with the primary objective of furthering British interests. This broke the pre-colonial tradition of chiefs being accountable to the people, the chiefs were now accountable only to the British –Government became responsible for economic goals, and set the precedent for people passively accepting the actions of the government

SOVEREIGNTY, AUTHORITY, AND POWER POLITICAL TRADITIONS POLITICAL TRADITIONS –Historical influences  THE COLONIAL ERA ( ): –Individualism as practiced in the west emphasized the importance of the individual. In Nigeria, however, it came to be interpreted by the chiefs as the personal benefits of governance –British introduced Christianity which spread in the South and West and began the clashes with the Muslim North –Intensification of ethnic tensions – British pitted one group against the other – Divide and Rule  Hausa-Fulani  Igbo  Yoruba

SOVEREIGNTY, AUTHORITY, AND POWER POLITICAL TRADITIONS POLITICAL TRADITIONS –Historical influences  SINCE INDEPENDENCE (1960-present): –Attempt at parliamentary form of government ( ) – failed because ethnic divisions did not allow a majority party with a prime minister with the necessary authority to run the country. Switched to presidential system with popularly elected president, a legislature and an independent judiciary. The legislature and the judiciary are not able to check the power of the president. –Intensification of ethnic conflict – Hausa-Fulani most populous dominated parliament and with coalition with the Yoruba ruled. Igbo led a military coup and took over in 1966

SOVEREIGNTY, AUTHORITY, AND POWER POLITICAL TRADITIONS POLITICAL TRADITIONS –Historical influences  SINCE INDEPENDENCE (1960-present): –Military rule, 1966, 1967 –The Biafran Civil War – Igbo seek independence ( ) –Personalized rule/corruption-continued traditions set up during colonial era of leaders not ruling for the common good but for personal gain. –Federalism-some powers are delegated to the states and to local governments. An attempt to keep the country together and lower ethnic tensions –Economic dependence on oil – led to corruption; led to other sectors of the economy to be ignored; Nigeria’s economy totally dependent on oil.

SOVEREIGNTY, AUTHORITY, AND POWER POLITICAL CULTURE POLITICAL CULTURE –Characterized by ethnic diversity and conflict, corruption and a politically active military –Includes democratic tradition and wishes to reinstate leaders that are responsible to the people

SOVEREIGNTY, AUTHORITY, AND POWER POLITICAL CULTURE POLITICAL CULTURE –Characteristics:  PREBENDALISM/PATRON CLIENTELISM- –Clientelism: the practice of exchanging political and economic favors among patrons and clients; almost always accompanied by corruption –The patron (or political leader) builds loyalty among his clients (or lesser elites) by granting them favors (usually patrons and clients are linked by religion and ethnicity)

POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE Pre-colonial era Pre-colonial era Entrance of the Fulani in the north through jihad – holy war. They established the Sokoto Caliphate introducing the political tradition of an organized, central government based on religion Entrance of the Fulani in the north through jihad – holy war. They established the Sokoto Caliphate introducing the political tradition of an organized, central government based on religion Colonial era Colonial era –British established the area that would become Nigeria –Introduction of western style education – creation of a literate elite – schools in the south so another cleavage – the literate south the backward north

POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE Post- Independence Post- Independence –Parliamentary government replaced in 1966 with military dictatorship –Established tendency for government to change hands quickly and violently

POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE FIRST REPUBLIC ( ) Independence in 1960 Independence in 1960 Initially adopted the British parliamentary system, with the PM chosen by the majority party or coalition. Initially adopted the British parliamentary system, with the PM chosen by the majority party or coalition. Northerners came to dominate the federal government because they had a greater population. Northerners came to dominate the federal government because they had a greater population. First 2 years quickly turned into a northern-only grouping when the NPC (Northern People’s Congress) achieved an outright majority in the legislature First 2 years quickly turned into a northern-only grouping when the NPC (Northern People’s Congress) achieved an outright majority in the legislature Redistribution of Resources- North benefited less from the economic, educational, and infrastructural benefits of colonialism and set to redistribute them for their benefit Redistribution of Resources- North benefited less from the economic, educational, and infrastructural benefits of colonialism and set to redistribute them for their benefit NPC policy of “northernization” brought them into direct conflict with the south. NPC policy of “northernization” brought them into direct conflict with the south.

POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE CIVIL WAR AND MILITARY RULE Igbo officers seized power in Jan 1966 Igbo officers seized power in Jan 1966 Violence broke out against the Igbo because so many northern officials were killed in the coup Violence broke out against the Igbo because so many northern officials were killed in the coup Ethnic violence sent many Igbos fleeing to their home region in the East Ethnic violence sent many Igbos fleeing to their home region in the East In 1967, predominately Igbo population of eastern Nigeria attempted to secede and form its own independent country named Biafra In 1967, predominately Igbo population of eastern Nigeria attempted to secede and form its own independent country named Biafra Yakubu Gowon, a Middle Belt Christian, built a military-led government of national unity in what remained of Nigeria (North and West) Yakubu Gowon, a Middle Belt Christian, built a military-led government of national unity in what remained of Nigeria (North and West) 3 year war of attrition and starvation tactics, defeated Biafra in Jan year war of attrition and starvation tactics, defeated Biafra in Jan Conflict claimed approx. 1 million deaths Conflict claimed approx. 1 million deaths

POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE BIAFRA ( ) Igbo secessionist state Igbo secessionist state Desired freedom because they believed the North would always dominate because of their larger numbers (Igbo are the smallest of the big-three ethnicities) Desired freedom because they believed the North would always dominate because of their larger numbers (Igbo are the smallest of the big-three ethnicities) Yakubu Gowon, a Middle-Belt Christian came to power to lead a Nigerian unity government to stop the secession Yakubu Gowon, a Middle-Belt Christian came to power to lead a Nigerian unity government to stop the secession

POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE POST WAR Policy of national reconciliation Policy of national reconciliation Senior officers reaped the benefits of the oil boom - Corruption was widespread Senior officers reaped the benefits of the oil boom - Corruption was widespread Gowon postponed a return to civilian rule, and was overthrown by Murtala Muhammad in 1975 Gowon postponed a return to civilian rule, and was overthrown by Murtala Muhammad in 1975 Murtala Muhammad was assassinated before he could achieve democratic transition Murtala Muhammad was assassinated before he could achieve democratic transition General Olusegun Obasanjo, Muhammad’s second-in- command and successor, peacefully ceded power to an elected civilian government in 1979, which became known as the Second Republic. He retired and reemerged as a civilian president in 1999 General Olusegun Obasanjo, Muhammad’s second-in- command and successor, peacefully ceded power to an elected civilian government in 1979, which became known as the Second Republic. He retired and reemerged as a civilian president in 1999

POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE SECOND AND THIRD REPUBLICS, AND PREDATORY MILITARY RULE  President Shehu Shagari, National Party of Nigeria (NPN). Supported largely by the North  President Shehu Shagari, National Party of Nigeria (NPN). Supported largely by the North. –Mistrust and corruption –Massive fraud and violent elections –The military, led by, Major General Muhammadu Buhari seized power

POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE SECOND AND THIRD REPUBLICS, AND PREDATORY MILITARY RULE General Buhari refused to pledge to a rapid return to democratic rule and failed to revive a plummeting economy, lost his supporters General Buhari refused to pledge to a rapid return to democratic rule and failed to revive a plummeting economy, lost his supporters 1985 General Ibrahim Babangida seized power 1985 General Ibrahim Babangida seized power Announced a transition to democratic rule, then stalled and annulled the presidential election of June 1993, he resigned Announced a transition to democratic rule, then stalled and annulled the presidential election of June 1993, he resigned Handpicked successor of Babangida, Ernest Shonekan, led a weak civilian caretaker government and General Sani Abacha, seized power Handpicked successor of Babangida, Ernest Shonekan, led a weak civilian caretaker government and General Sani Abacha, seized power

POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE SECOND AND THIRD REPUBLICS, AND PREDATORY MILITARY RULE SECOND AND THIRD REPUBLICS, AND PREDATORY MILITARY RULE Abacha announced a new program of transition to civilian rule and regularly delayed its steps to implementation. Abacha announced a new program of transition to civilian rule and regularly delayed its steps to implementation. Cracked down on political opposition, severely restricted civil liberties and political rights and fomented corruption on a massive scale Cracked down on political opposition, severely restricted civil liberties and political rights and fomented corruption on a massive scale Abacha suddenly died and his successor General Abdulsalami Abubakar quickly established a new transition program and promptly handed power to an elected civilian government led by President Olusegun Obasanjo and the People’s Democratic Party in May 1999 Abacha suddenly died and his successor General Abdulsalami Abubakar quickly established a new transition program and promptly handed power to an elected civilian government led by President Olusegun Obasanjo and the People’s Democratic Party in May 1999

POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE FOURTH REPUBLIC 1999-present Obasanjo was called out of retirement by the People’s Democratic Party (PDP) Obasanjo was called out of retirement by the People’s Democratic Party (PDP) Obasanjo a Yoruba Obasanjo a Yoruba In 1979, Obasanjo handed power over as military head of state to the northerner Shehu Shagari, In 1979, Obasanjo handed power over as military head of state to the northerner Shehu Shagari, Therefore, North believed that he was Yoruba candidate they could trust Therefore, North believed that he was Yoruba candidate they could trust

POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE OBASANJO’S PRESIDENCY Reformed the state and the economy Reformed the state and the economy Retired all military officers who held positions of political power under previous military governments Retired all military officers who held positions of political power under previous military governments Targeted oil sector for new management and lobbied foreign governments to forgive Nigeria’s massive debts Targeted oil sector for new management and lobbied foreign governments to forgive Nigeria’s massive debts Raised the minimum wage significantly Raised the minimum wage significantly “truth and reconciliation” commission was set up to address past abuses in the impoverished and environmentally ravaged Niger Delta Region, where oil is extracted “truth and reconciliation” commission was set up to address past abuses in the impoverished and environmentally ravaged Niger Delta Region, where oil is extracted Civil society groups thrived on renewed political freedom Civil society groups thrived on renewed political freedom Media grew bold in exposing corrupt practices Media grew bold in exposing corrupt practices He had political debts to his party, and his political survival required that the anticorruption campaign leave entrenched interests unscathed and corrupt politicians in place He had political debts to his party, and his political survival required that the anticorruption campaign leave entrenched interests unscathed and corrupt politicians in place

POLITICAL AND ECONOMIC CHANGE REELECTION CAMPAIGN IN 2003 Reelection nomination for the PDP through a series of political accommodations with key party barons Reelection nomination for the PDP through a series of political accommodations with key party barons PDP political machine engaged in widespread electoral malpractices PDP political machine engaged in widespread electoral malpractices Secured president’s second term and PDP dominance, however public confidence plummeted Secured president’s second term and PDP dominance, however public confidence plummeted

CITIZENS, SOCIETY AND THE STATE Problems hampering democratization Problems hampering democratization –Poverty: 60% live below the poverty level; many in ‘absolute poverty’ (do not have the means to actually survive) –Large gap between the rich and the poor: unequal distribution of income. Very few rich most are poor. Few signs of economic growth so the outlook for closing the income gap is bleak

CITIZENS, SOCIETY AND THE STATE Problems hampering democratization Problems hampering democratization –Health Issues: high rates of HIV/AIDS hamper the economy and the society. Government relies on NGOs to deal with the issue primarily –Literacy: literacy rate 68%  male literacy 75.7%  Female literacy 60.6%

CITIZENS, SOCIETY AND THE STATE CLEAVAGES – fragmented society based on CLEAVAGES – fragmented society based on –Ethnicity –Religion –Region –Urban/rural differences –Social class  Similarity with Russia – both have to deal with ethnic- based civil wars (Russia-Chechnya, Nigeria-Biafran Civil War) –Grave consequences: cleavages make basic agreements about governance almost impossible

CITIZENS, SOCIETY AND THE STATE CLEAVAGES CLEAVAGES –Ethnicity  separate ethnic groups with their own customs, languages and religions  3 largest – Hausa-Fulani, Igbo and Yoruba –have little in common and don’t speak each other’s languages; –live separately with virtually no contact

CITIZENS, SOCIETY AND THE STATE CLEAVAGES CLEAVAGES –Religion  No common ideology to unite the ethnically divided country (like communism in S.U. and China) and competing religions intensify divisions  50% Muslim  40% Christian  10% native religions  Preferential treatment given to Christians by British colonizers  Role of shari’a law in policymaking a major contention between the two major religious groups

CITIZENS, SOCIETY AND THE STATE CLEAVAGES – CLEAVAGES – –Region - north vs. south –North – Muslim; South – Christian –Urban/rural differences  Urban areas - more politically active; more political organizations and interest groups; more media sources; more organized protests –Social class  Elites v. ordinary people  Elites control the state and resources  Elites maintain control by manipulating ethnic and religious identities

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CITIZENS, SOCIETY AND THE STATE POLITICAL PARTICIPATION POLITICAL PARTICIPATION –Citizens encouraged to relate to government as subjects not as participants –Civil society exists and it existed even during military dictatorships –a lot of political participation is through the patron-client system

CITIZENS, SOCIETY AND THE STATE POLITICAL PARTICIPATION POLITICAL PARTICIPATION –Civil Society   Interest groups   Informal voluntary associations   Trade unions   Professional associations –Voting behavior   Difficult to track due to the irregular and fraudulent nature of Nigerian elections

CITIZENS, SOCIETY AND THE STATE POLITICAL PARTICIPATION POLITICAL PARTICIPATION –Attitudes toward government   Low level of trust in their government   Skeptical about the prospects for democracy   Do not believe that elections are fair and honest – –Protests   Some peaceful others violent   Way to put pressure on the government to address issues   Protests against the oil companies   Violent protests against oil companies, destruction of pipelines in 2006 slowed production causing fall of revenue and even caused some companies to leave due to the unstable and insecure conditions

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS Federal and democratic government structure (in theory, not in reality) Federal and democratic government structure (in theory, not in reality) LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS –Political Parties  Regionally and ethnically based  Extreme factionalism led to the development of so many parties that it was almost impossible to create a coherent party system  Reinforced and deepened ethnic and religious cleavages  Form around powerful individuals so they are not ideological and disappear with the loss of the leader

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS –Political Parties  2011 Election – two parties supported major presidential candidates: –The People’s Democratic Party (PDP) – run candidates since The party of Olusegun Obasanjo. Because of fraudulent elections it is difficult to know how much real support the party has even though many of its candidates win. Has run both Muslim and Christian candidates. The party of current president Goodluck Jonathan. –The Congress for Progressive Change (CPC) – founded in 2009 for the 2011 elections.  Parties must register for participation with the Independent National Election Commission (INEC)

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS ELECTIONS AND ELECTORAL PROCEDURES ELECTIONS AND ELECTORAL PROCEDURES –Citizens vote for candidates on three levels: local, state and national  National level – president, representatives to the House of Representatives and senators from their states –National Elections  Presidential Elections: first in 1999, next in 2003 –If a presidential candidate does not receive an outright majority a second ballot election may take place –In order for a presidential candidate to win they not only must have a majority but they must also receive at least 25% of all the votes cast in 2/3 of the states. This is an attempt to create unity around the president since a purely regional candidate cannot win the presidency

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS ELECTIONS AND ELECTORAL PROCEDURES ELECTIONS AND ELECTORAL PROCEDURES –National Elections  Legislative Elections: –Senate has 109 senators, 3 from each of the 36 states and one from the federal capital territory, Abuja  Senators elected by direct popular vote –House of Representatives has 360 members elected by SMDP vote –Result in both houses is regional representation with many ethnicities that try to form coalitions –Legislative policymaking power is very weak –Currently PDP holds a majority in both houses

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS ELECTIONS AND ELECTORAL PROCEDURES ELECTIONS AND ELECTORAL PROCEDURES –Election Fraud  For Nigeria it is significant progress to have been able to hold four successive regularly scheduled elections  Violence around elections  2003 election: INEC with outside pressure made an attempt to cleanse the electoral process –Declared almost six million names on voter rolls fraudulent! –Outside election observers concluded that elections were still fraudulent with ballot boxes, stuffed, stolen and vandalized  2007 election: worse than the previous one, widespread and obvious fraud witnessed by outside observers. –Frustrated voters erupted in protests which turned violent with 200 deaths

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS ELECTIONS AND ELECTORAL PROCEDURES ELECTIONS AND ELECTORAL PROCEDURES –Election Fraud  2011 election: greatly improved due to reforms initiated by INEC –Goodluck Jonathan won the presidency with 59% of the vote –PDP won majorities in both houses of the legislature –Evidence of the ethnic and religious divide of the north and south  Jonathan did not receive any votes in 12 of the northernmost states and his opponent from the north got miniscule support in the south –Election followed by violence

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS INTEREST GROUPS - Have played an important role in government and politics INTEREST GROUPS - Have played an important role in government and politics –Labor Unions – their influence was limited by corporatism (government approved interest groups provide feedback to the government)  2007 the Nigeria Labor Congress successfully organized a general strike of workers in cities across Nigeria to protest the government’s hike of fuel prices and taxes –Business Interests –Human Rights Groups – promote democratic reform

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS MASS MEDIA MASS MEDIA –Well developed independent press –Radio main source of information –Newspapers and TV more common in cities –All 36 states run own radio stations

POLITICAlL INSTITUTIONS NATIONAL GOVERNMENT NATIONAL GOVERNMENT –Federal system –Three branches, executive dominates the others –Presidential system since 1979 –Bicameral legislature –Independent judiciary –Unfortunately, neither federalism nor checks and balances operate and state and local governments are totally dependent on the central govenment

POLITICAlL INSTITUTIONS NATIONAL GOVERNMENT – The Executive NATIONAL GOVERNMENT – The Executive –Follow US presidential system with 2 term limit for president  UNDER MILITARY RULE: –Generals ruled under a system of partimonialism-the president is the head of an intricate patron-client system and gives government jobs and resources as rewards to supporters. All government positions, ministers, bureaucrats, office workers, are part of the president’s patronage system

Nigerian Executive Presidential Structure President: Goodluck Jonathan President: Goodluck Jonathan –Serves as Head of State and Head of Government –Independently elected according to the 1999 Constitution. President must be a citizen of Nigeria, at least 40 years of age, and be sponsored by his political party. President must be a citizen of Nigeria, at least 40 years of age, and be sponsored by his political party. Limited to two terms of office, four years each. Limited to two terms of office, four years each. President Controls: President Controls: –Military and Police –Federal Ministries (the Cabinet) –Federal Civil Service –Revenue Allocation System –Federal Commissions –Signs bills and refers back to Assembly –Appoints ambassadors, etc. Unique Features Parties play a more significant role in empowering the Nigerian president because his party controls the legislature and helps get his agenda passed. Parties play a more significant role in empowering the Nigerian president because his party controls the legislature and helps get his agenda passed.

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS NATIONAL GOVERNMENT – The Bureaucracy NATIONAL GOVERNMENT – The Bureaucracy –Put in place by the British and continued after independence –Bloated due to the system of patronage –Corrupt and inefficient –Para-statals: many government agencies are actually para-statals, or corporations owned by the government whose purpose is to provide commercial and social welfare services  Theoretically para-statals are privately owned but their boards are appointed by government ministers and they are interwoven in the president’s patronage system. Example, public utilities.

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS NATIONAL GOVERNMENT – The Bureaucracy NATIONAL GOVERNMENT – The Bureaucracy –State Corporatism

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS NATIONAL GOVERNMENT – The Bureaucracy NATIONAL GOVERNMENT – The Bureaucracy –State Corporatism: government allows political input from selected interest groups outside the government structure –Para-statals are the interest groups that are allowed input but because they are controlled by the government it becomes state corporatism

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS NATIONAL GOVERNMENT – The Legislature NATIONAL GOVERNMENT – The Legislature –National Assembly-the bicameral legislature –Representatives and senators – both serve four-year renewable terms. Elections held the week before the presidential elections –The Senate  109 senators (3 from each state plus one from capital territory)  Elected directly by popular vote  Reflect the diversity of the states  Only 4 women after 2011 elections

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS NATIONAL GOVERNMENT – The Legislature NATIONAL GOVERNMENT – The Legislature –The House of Representatives  360 members from single member districts  Elected by plurality  Only 13 women after 2011 elections –The legislature has been very weak not an effective check on the president’s power until recently –It stopped president Obasanjo from changing the constitution to allow him to run for a third term in 2007 –Corruption prevalent among legislative leaders as well

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS NATIONAL GOVERNMENT – The Judiciary NATIONAL GOVERNMENT – The Judiciary –Initially a truly autonomous system but corrupted during the various military dictatorships –Judicial review (interpreting the laws in accordance with the Constitution) exists in theory –Federal and state level courts –Highest court the Supreme Court –Court system complicated by the sharia courts that function side by side with the state courts in 12 Muslim states in the north –Court system is getting stronger – tribunals set to investigate election fraud in 2007

POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS NATIONAL GOVERNMENT – The Military NATIONAL GOVERNMENT – The Military –a strong force behind policymaking –Due to its active direct involvement in politics, it lost its credibility as an objective organization that keeps order and brings stability –One of the few institutions that is truly NATIONAL –It has always restored order when ethnic cleavages threatened instability and breakup

PUBLIC POLICY Top-down policymaking Top-down policymaking Power concentrated in the presidency and input to the executive (president and ministers) comes through patron clientelism Power concentrated in the presidency and input to the executive (president and ministers) comes through patron clientelism Loyalty pyramid: senior government officials supported by a broader base of junior officials loyal to them Loyalty pyramid: senior government officials supported by a broader base of junior officials loyal to them Those in the pyramid get a share of the state resources, wealth and influence Those in the pyramid get a share of the state resources, wealth and influence Democracy requires that political leaders be responsible for the welfare of all their people, not only to those they owe favors to Democracy requires that political leaders be responsible for the welfare of all their people, not only to those they owe favors to

PUBLIC POLICY ECONOMIC ISSUES ECONOMIC ISSUES –Loyalty pyramids led to the squandering of the county’s wealth –Debt –Most people live in poverty –Oil revenues disappear and don’t benefit the people –2001 federal government asked the Supreme Court to allow it to collect all oil revenue into a “federal account” to allow the entire country to benefit from oil profits  States in the south protested strongly because the saw the new policy as coming from the north that wanted to take their profits away.  Without trust in the government people thought this policy would allow corrupt politicians more access to the funds

PUBLIC POLICY ECONOMIC ISSUES ECONOMIC ISSUES –Is oil a source of strength or weakness?  Rentier state (economy heavily supported by state expenditure while state receives rent from other countries. Rent=income from exporting oil and leasing oil fields to foreign companies; rent=nation’s revenues) –Rent-seeking behavior-individuals, groups and communities learned to compete to get a part of the revenue from the government through the patron-client system; president has control over who gets what –Most Nigerians do not get any part of the rent; they survive by participating in the informal economy (unreported incomes from small-scale trading and subsistence agriculture)  Member of OPEC – gains leverage whenever tensions in the Middle East affect the oil supply coming out of that region  Economy suffers when world oil prices go down; debt rises during those periods because economy is focus on one export  Environmental impact on the Niger Delta – according to UN it would take 30 years and 41 billion to restore the area

PUBLIC POLICY ECONOMIC ISSUES ECONOMIC ISSUES –Structural Adjustment  Restructure and diversify the economy to decrease dependence on oil  Reduce government spending  Privatize para-statals  First attempted in 1985 during the rule of General Babangida who had to follow instructions by the World Band and the IMF in order to get help to deal with the country’s debt

PUBLIC POLICY ECONOMIC ISSUES ECONOMIC ISSUES –Structural Adjustment  Did not succeed –Debt payments could still not be made –Debt still a major problem –Para-statals still govenrment owned –Private sector has still not grown  Current attempts –A professionally managed sovereign-wealth fund –Encourage private bank accounts and mobile-phone banking –Provide capital to the private sector to encourage its growth

PUBLIC POLICY “THE FEDERAL CHARACTER” “THE FEDERAL CHARACTER” –It is a goal of the government to have the nation recognize that it has to represent the many ethnicities, religions and regions that it includes –Negative effects:  Since all ethnicities have to be represented, jobs/positions were often created just for that purpose causing a bloated bureaucracy  The people who got those positions because of their ethnicity felt a responsibility to promote the interests of their group reinforcing division  The 36 states are in competition with each other for the government's resources so there is not much cooperation

PUBLIC POLICY “THE FEDERAL CHARACTER” “THE FEDERAL CHARACTER” –“…democratic compromise [is] difficult. The different groups clamor for scarce resources and for control of the government. This leads to what Daniel Chirot refers to as "democratic paralysis”…”

PUBLIC POLICY DEMOCRATIZATION DEMOCRATIZATION –Some checks and balances  Ex. Legislature stopping Obasanjo’s attempt at constitutional change for third term –Independent court decisions  Court ruling challenged President Obasanjo’s actions to keep his vice president from running for the presidency in 2007  Court tribunals set to investigate election fraud after 2007 election and actually removed some officials from office –Revival of civil society after military dictatorships

PUBLIC POLICY DEMOCRATIZATION DEMOCRATIZATION –Independent media  Reporters monitored and reported on fraudulent practices during 2007 election  Reported irregularities during 2011 elections –Peaceful succession of power  Power passes from one civilian president to another –Obasanjo to Yar’Adua to Jonathan (after Yar’Adua’s death and then through elections) –Improving Freedom House scores  Freedom House-organization that studies democracy around the world and ranks countries on a 1 to 7 freedom scale, 1 being the most free

FREEDOM HOUSE 2013 RATINGS COUNTRYSTATUS FREEDOM RATING CIVIL LIBERTIES POLITICAL RIGHTS United KingdomFREE111 RussiaNOT FREE5.556 ChinaNOT FREE6.567 IranNOT FREE666 NigeriaPARTLY FREE MexicoPARTLY FREE 333

PUBLIC POLICY DEMOCRATIZATION DEMOCRATIZATION –Major obstacle to democratization – patron- clientalism; breeds corruption which makes it difficult to solve economic problems; also reinforces ethnic discord