Chapter 2 Theories of Human Development

Chapter 2: Theories of Human Development Theory: Ideas proposed to describe/explain certain phenomena Organizes facts/observations Guides collection of new data Should be internally consistent Falsifiable: hypothesis can be tested Supported by data

Freud: Psychoanalytic Theory Instincts and unconscious motivation Id, Ego, and Superego formed from psychic energy (Libido) Id: Instinctual nature of humans Ego: rational and objective Superego: internalized moral standards A dynamic personality system Regular conflicts between the three parts

Freud’s Psychosexual Development Child moves through 5 stages Stages result from conflict between Id & Superego Conflict creates anxiety Ego defends against anxiety with defense mechanisms Early experiences have long-term effects on personality

Erik Erikson Most influential neo-Freudian Some differences with Freud Less emphasis on sexual urges More emphasis on rational ego More positive and adaptive view of human nature Believed development continues through adulthood

Strengths and Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory Awareness of unconscious motivation Emphasized important early experience Neo-Freudians have been influential Weaknesses Ambiguous, inconsistent, not testable Not supported by research

Strengths and Weaknesses of Erikson Emphasis on rational and adaptive nature Interaction of biological & social influences Focus on identity crisis of adolescence still most relevant Weaknesses Sometimes vague and difficult to test Does not explain how development comes about

Learning Theories: Classical Conditioning Behaviorism: Conclusions should be based on observable behavior Tabula Rasa: Environmental view Association learning UCS: built-in, unlearned stimulus UCR: automatic, unlearned response CS: causes learned response CR: learned response

Figure 2.3 John B. Watson was the father of behaviorism.

Figure 2.2 The three phases of classical conditioning.

Learning Theories: Operant Conditioning Probability of behavior based on environmental consequences Reinforcement Pleasant consequence Increases probability Punishment Decreases probability Unpleasant, aversive

Bandura: Social Cognitive Theory Formerly called social learning theory Humans think, anticipate, believe, etc. Cognitive emphasis: observational learning BoBo doll studies Model praised or punished Child learned to imitate rewarded model Vicarious reinforcement

Learning Theory: Strengths & Weaknesses Precise and testable theory Carefully controlled experiments Practical applications across lifespan Weaknesses Inadequate account of lifespan changes Ignored genetic and maturational processes

Piaget: Cognitive Developmental Theory Intelligence: Ability to adapt to environment Constructivism: Understanding based on experience Interactionist Both biological maturation and experience required for progress At each new stage, children think in a qualitatively different way

Cognitive Developmental Theory Strengths Well-accepted by developmentalists Well-researched, mostly supported Influenced education and parenting Weaknesses Ignores motivation and emotion Stages not universal – esp. last one

Contextual/Systems Theories Lev Vygotsky: Sociocultural perspective Cognitive development is a social process Problem solving aided by dialogues Gottlieb: Evolutionary/Epigenetic Systems Genes, neural activity, behavior, and environment mutually influential Normal genes and normal early experiences most helpful