Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Infants, Children, and Adolescents Chapter 6 Cognitive Development in Infancy and Childhood

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Piaget’s Cognitive- Developmental Theory The sensorimotor stage spans the first two years of life. Organized ways of making sense of experience, called schemes, change with age. Action-based (motor patterns) at first Action-based (motor patterns) at first Later move to a mental (thinking) level Later move to a mental (thinking) level

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Building Schemes Adaptation Building schemes Building schemesAssimilation Using current schemes to interpret external world Using current schemes to interpret external worldAccommodation Adjusting old schemes and creating new ones to better fit environment Adjusting old schemes and creating new ones to better fit environment © Renata Osińska | Dreamstime.comRenata OsińskaDreamstime.com

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Using Assimilation and Accommodation Equilibrium and Disequilibrium Use assimilation during equilibrium Use assimilation during equilibrium Disequilibrium prompts accommodation Disequilibrium prompts accommodationOrganization Internal rearranging and linking schemes

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Sensorimotor Stage  Birth to 2 years, divided into six substages  Building schemes through sensory and motor exploration  Circular reactions— stumbling upon a new experience caused by the baby’s own motor activity © Kathleen Van Hoffen | Dreamstime.comKathleen Van HoffenDreamstime.com

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Piaget’s Sensorimotor Substages Table 6.1

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Intentional Behavior Goal-directed Means–end action sequences According to Piaget, develops in Substage 4 Object permanence Babies still make A-not-B search errors. Babies still make A-not-B search errors. © Petro Feketa | Dreamstime.comPetro FeketaDreamstime.com

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Object Permanence  Renée Baillargeon and her collaborators claim to have found evidence for object permanence in the first few months of life.  Some critics question whether babies’ looking preferences tell us what they really know.  Mastery of object permanence is a gradual achievement.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Violation-of-Expectation Method Figure 6.1

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Mental Representations Internal, mental depictions of objects, people, events, information Can manipulate with mind Can manipulate with mind Allow deferred imitation and make- believe play Allow deferred imitation and make- believe play

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Deferred Imitation Piaget: Develops at about 18 months Newer research: Present at 6 weeks – facial imitation Present at 6 weeks – facial imitation 6 – 9 months – copy actions 6 – 9 months – copy actions 14 months – imitate rationally 14 months – imitate rationally 18 months – imitate intended, but not completed, actions 18 months – imitate intended, but not completed, actions

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Testing Infants for Deferred Imitation Figure 6.2 After researchers performed a novel series of actions with a puppet, this 6-month-old imitated the actions a day later—(a) removing the glove; (b) shaking the glove to ring a bell inside. With age, gains in recall are evident in deferred imitation of others’ behaviors over longer delays.

Baby Learning from TV and Video: Video Deficit Effect  40% of U.S. 3 month- olds watch TV regularly; rises to 90% at age 2.  Infants initially respond to videos of people as actual people.  Toddlers demonstrate video deficit effect— poorer performance after a video than a live demonstration.  Around age 2½, this effect declines.  Videos for teaching 2- year-olds work best when they are rich in social cues. Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Evaluation of Sensorimotor Stage Some developments happen when Piaget described: Object search Object search A-not-B search error A-not-B search error Make-believe play Make-believe play Many appear to happen sooner than Piaget thought: Object permanence Object permanence Secondary circular reactions Secondary circular reactions Deferred imitation Deferred imitation Problem solving by analogy Problem solving by analogy

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Core Knowledge Perspective Infants are born with core knowledge in several domains of thought: Physical knowledge Physical knowledge Linguistic knowledge Linguistic knowledge Psychological knowledge Psychological knowledge Numerical knowledge Numerical knowledge Findings controversial, but all acknowledge importance of experience

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Model of Human Information- Processing System Figure 6.4

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Attention  During the first year, infants pay attention to novel events.  During toddlerhood, children become capable of intentional behavior and sustained attention improves. © Yi Jin | Dreamstime.comYi JinDreamstime.com

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Memory Operant conditioning research: Infants’ memories increase dramatically during infancy and toddlerhood. Infants’ memories increase dramatically during infancy and toddlerhood. Memories move from highly context- dependent to increasingly context-free. Memories move from highly context- dependent to increasingly context-free. Habituation/recovery research: Infants do not need to be physically active to acquire and retain new information. Infants do not need to be physically active to acquire and retain new information. Infants can engage in recall by end of first year.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Increase in Retention in Two Operant Conditioning Tasks from 2 to 18 Months Figure 6.5

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Infantile Amnesia Most of us cannot recall events before age 3. May be due to: Immature brain development Memory processing in infants is nonverbal. Lack of focused self-image Figure 6.6

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Categorization  By 6 months, infants can categorize based on two features (e.g., shape and color).  Earliest categories are perceptual, but by the second half of the first year, more categories are conceptual. Figure 6.7

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Social contexts (other people) contribute to cognitive development. Zone of Proximal Development – tasks child cannot do alone but can learn to do with help Scaffolding promotes learning at all ages. Scaffolding promotes learning at all ages. Cultural variations affect mental strategies taught and learned. Cultural variations affect mental strategies taught and learned.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Social Origins of Make-Believe Play  Society provides children with opportunities to represent culturally meaningful activities in play.  Research indicates that make- believe play is a result of readiness and experiences.  Adult participation leads to more complex play and teaches cultural values. © Monkey Business Images | Dreamstime.comMonkey Business ImagesDreamstime.com

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Infant Intelligence Tests Bayley Scales of Infant Development  Suitable for children between 1 month and 3½ years The Bayley-III  The Cognitive Scale  The Language Scale  The Motor Scale  The Social-Emotional Scale*  The Adaptive Behavior Scale* * Rely on parental report * Rely on parental report

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Normal Distribution of Intelligence Test Scores Figure 6.9

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. HOME Infant–Toddler Subscales Source: Bradley, 1994; Bradley et al., 2001.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. High-Quality HOME Environment Checklist for gathering information about the quality of children’s home lives through observation and parental interview Measured during first three years Measured during first three years Extent to which parents talk with children especially important Extent to which parents talk with children especially important Predicts language, IQ, and academic achievement Predicts language, IQ, and academic achievement Genetic–environmental correlation? Genetic–environmental correlation?

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Elements of Developmentally Appropriate Child Care  Responsive, interactive, well-trained caregivers  Clean, safe, uncrowded indoor spaces  Appropriate toys, stored within reach  Safe equipment  Low teacher-child ratios  Flexible daily schedule  Warm atmosphere  Parents welcome anytime  Accredited

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. IQ Improvement from Early Intervention Programs IQ scores of treatment and control children from infancy to 21 years in the Carolina Abecedarian Project. At 1 year, treatment children outperformed controls, an advantage consistently maintained through age 21. The IQ scores of both groups declined gradually during childhood and adolescence—a trend probably due to the damaging impact of poverty on mental development. (Adapted from Campbell et al., 2001.) Figure 6.10

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Three Theories of Language Development Behaviorist (B. F. Skinner) Learned through operant conditioning (reinforcement) and imitation Nativist (Noam Chomsky) Inborn language acquisition device (LAD) biologically prepares infants to learn rules of language. Interactionist Inner capacities and environment work together; social context is important.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Broca’s and Wernicke’s Areas in the Left Hemisphere of the Cerebral Cortex Broca’s Area Supports grammatical processing and language production Wernicke’s Area Plays role in comprehending word meaning Figure 6.11

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Recent Developments in the Interactionist Perspective Recent ideas about language development emphasize interactions between inner capacities and environmental influences. Two theories: Information-processing perspective Information-processing perspective Social interaction Social interaction

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Milestones of Language Development During the First Two Years Table 6.3

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Getting Ready to Talk First speech sounds Cooing Babbling Becoming a communicator Joint attention Give-and-take Preverbal gestures © Hupeng | Dreamstime.comHupengDreamstime.com

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Sensitive Period for Language Development  A deaf-born 5-month-old given a cochlear implant showed typical infant babbling and resembled her hearing agemates in language development at 3 to 4 years.  If hearing is not restored until after age 2, children remain behind in language development.  If implantation occurs after age 4, language delays are severe and persistent.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Starting to Talk First Words Underextension Underextension Overextension Overextension Two-Word Utterances Most children show a steady, continuous increase in the rate of word learning through the preschool years. Most children show a steady, continuous increase in the rate of word learning through the preschool years. Telegraphic speech Telegraphic speech © Ajphotos | Dreamstime.comAjphotosDreamstime.com

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Comprehension versus Production  Toddlers’ comprehension of the spoken language increases dramatically over the second year.  Quick comprehension frees space in working memory for picking up new words and for the more demanding task of using them to communicate.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Individual and Cultural Differences in Language Development GenderTemperamentEnvironment SES SES Child-directed speech Child-directed speech Language style Referential Referential Expressive Expressive Language delay © Gilbert Agao | Dreamstime.comGilbert AgaoDreamstime.com

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Supporting Early Language Development Infants  Respond to coos and babbles.  Establish and respond to joint attention.  Play social games. Toddlers  Play make-believe together.  Have frequent conversations.  Read to toddlers often and talk about the books.

Copyright © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. Parent – Child Interaction: Impact on Language and Cognitive Development of Deaf Children  About 2 to 3 of every 1,000 infants in the United States are born deaf.  Ninety percent have hearing parents who are not fluent in sign language.  Often delayed in development of language and make-believe play and have deficient social skills  Intervention within the first year of life can have a positive impact on language, cognitive, and social outcomes.