Themes and theories Developmental Psychology Dr. Kline FSU-PC

I. Two approaches we will focus on in discussing development in this course: Dynamical systems approach Behavioral systems approach

A. Dynamical Systems approach: This approach argues “our” development is constantly changing in response to a continually changing environment. (The environment both influences & is influenced by us. Likewise we change & in turn, change the environment.) Both biological (genetics, etc.) & environmental factors interact in our development over time.

B. Behavioral Systems Approach: Argues that development occurs due to learning/conditioning processes that occur in our environment. Is concerned with the what environmental influences determine behavior. In this course, the behavioral systems approach adopts principles from the dynamical systems theory in explaining development.

Dynamic Systems and Development: Basic principles that apply 1. Development involves the person & environment. 2. The relationship between the person & environment is constantly changing. 3. The effects of the environment & person are reciprocal (effect each other). 4. Several events (factors) that effect development do so simultaneously (biological, social, emotional, etc). 5. Development is nonlinear (may be sudden—as in stage changes). 6. Development is emergent. New behaviors called “strange attractors” emerge.

Levels of Analysis & development Using dynamical systems theory, a child’s given development can be simultaneously examined from a variety of dimensions. Question: Since development occurs simultaneously across multiple systems (home life, school, biological, social, etc.) how do we focus on a key area of development? Answer: We can look at one level of analysis or all levels depending on what we are interested in.

II. Theories A theory or paradigm is a conceptual framework to examine a given phenomenon. Each theory has a set of basic assumptions. A theory’s assumptions and framework determine which methods (data collection, analysis) will be used to study a given phenomenon.

Advantages of theories: 1. Theories allow us to summarize the results of many research studies & integrate numerous principles of learning. 2. Theories provide starting points for conducting new research. 3. Theories offer us a way for describing why things happen.

Disadvantages of Theories: 1. No theory explains all that is known about a given phenomenon. 2. Theories affect what new information is published, biasing the knowledge we have about personality.

Judging Scientific Theories 1. Testability 2. Simplicity 3.Generality 4. Fruitfulness 5. Accuracy-agreement with data 6. Parsimony-the fewer the assumptions the better.

III. Variability in Developmental Theories: Developmental theories differ from one another on several dimensions: 1. How broadly or narrowly does the theory examine development (Does the theory examine specific forms of behavior (e.g. language) or all forms of behavior?) 2. Does the theory focus on a limited time span in development (e.g., childhood) or focus on the lifespan?

3. Does the theory focus more on structure or Function? Structural knowledge refers to understanding the structures of components of a given object or concept. (E.g., Knowing the structures in your car (engine,transmission, starter, radiator, etc.)). Theories with a structural perspective examine human behavior to infer the structures that underlie the behavior. E.g., The frontal lobes may underlie the behavioral symptoms of ADHD (hyperactivity; poor attention), because this brain region is significantly under-active in kids with ADHD compared to controls.

Functional knowledge-refers to the actual function of the object or concept. (E.g., how the engine works to propel the car.) Theories with a functional perspective examine what events influence the behaviors of others (and why). E.g., Why do children speak differently around their peers than with their parents?

4. Does the theory describe or explain a given phenomenon? Some theories provide detailed descriptions of children’s behavior in an attempt to provide a theory of development (largely based on those observations---Piaget). While these theories are rich in observations and very useful for describing aspects of human behavior, the observations themselves aren’t objective enough to provide explanations for why the behaviors occurred. Why class?????

Description as explanation doesn’t work!!! Unless you conduct carefully controlled experimental studies, you have no way of knowing whether the variables of interest actually “caused” the effects in your dependent measures. Scientists sometimes mistake description as explanation. This is circular reasoning. In true explanations, you can predict and control behavior.

What is circular reasoning? “Jack can’t focus his attention on the task because he has ADHD.” What’s wrong with this sentence? ADHD is a summary description of several negative behaviors. It isn’t a known “cause” and can’t be used as a cause to explain negative behaviors. It simply describes children who can’t focus their attention or sit still.

Another example of circular reasoning 1. John hits Mark. (An observed behavior) 2. John is violent and aggressive. (A description of John’s behavior if formed) John is violent and aggressive because he hits Mark. (Description is used to explain the behavior).

5. To what extent does biology (genetics) and environment (family, surroundings) determine our behavior? Nature vs. Nurture debate is a false dichotomy, because both contribute to our development. Thus both play a major role in how we develop. Nevertheless, it is unclear to what extent each of these factors contributes to the variance in our behavior.

IV. A Dynamic Systems Approach: This theory argues that both an individual and the environment influence each other in a dynamic fashion. That is, while we are influenced by our surroundings, we also influence our environment. E.g., A child’s first babbling responses are heavily reinforced by her caregivers (they babble back to her). Over time, the child’s babbling & talking improves in complexity, which in turn changes how complexly her parents communicate with her. This two-way interaction leads to a transaction.

What is a transaction? It is a progressive interaction between an individual and the environment. It occurs when the result of previous reciprocal interactions determine current interactions. Simply put, with repeated reciprocal interactions (e.g., Mom’s repeated efforts to speak with babbling infant), the current interactions (more recent conversations between Mom and child) become more sophisticated. Mother-child system changes with earlier reciprocal interactions.

Behavior is determined by the reciprocal interaction of four factors: Genetic-Constitutional Make-up History of Interactions Current Physiological Conditions Current Environmental Conditions Behavior Dynamics (how above systems interact)

Principles of Dynamic Systems Principles are the functions that produce the structures of development. A. Multiple Determination—simply put, our behavior results from multiple causes. Many factors, combine to produce even simple behaviors. B. Equifinality—Similar outcomes are the result of different interactions. (Most of you are enrolled in the ABA program here, but you each come from different backgrounds, schools, families, cultures, etc.).

C. Nonlinearity and Models of Development Development is not linear the way it was originally thought. That is, development does not proceed in a straight line. Rather, development occurs according to an interactionist model. Because humans are social creatures, our development in influenced not only by our genetics, but how we interact with the environment. Thus, development is nonlinear, since the causal relationships are bi-directional.

Example of nonlinear relationship: Event A: a father’s waves “bye-bye” to his son. Event B. The child waves “bye-bye” in response to his father. This increases the father’s waving back to the child and so forth. Thus, not only does A affect B and B affect A, but the change A produces in B modifies the affect B has on A, which in turn changes the effect A has on B.

D. Emergent Properties According to the nonlinear theory our behavior is dynamically altered and alters the behaviors of those around us. Thus changes occur in response to these reciprocal interactions. Interestingly, some of the changes that occur are novel given previous experiences. These are emergent behaviors. E.g., Children often produce utterances they’ve never heard before (“What is that truck doing, washing the street for?")

E. Phase Shifts & Stages Phase shifts and Stages refer to changes in the qualitative states of behavior. E.g., shifting from babbling, to word production, followed by sentence production. Phase shifts are sudden, their order predictable, the behaviors are a different form from those that occurred before, & finally the form and timing of the shift is predictable in the species.

F. Coalescent organization Multiple factors (neurological, physical, social, familial,etc.) are brought together to form coherent patterns of behavior. E.g., we are bipedal, so given our physiology and constraints, we can locomote using our legs, but can’t fly.

V. Developmental Trajectories From a dynamic systems perspective, development is viewed as having a pathway (trajectory). Thus, development is moving along a path. If environmental/physical conditions remain constant, behavior may take one of three trajectories: It may stay the same It may maintain its path (either linear or curvilinear) It may change completely (phase shift).