© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers 17 Physical and Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network; preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images; any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Centenarians (100 years old or more) Fastest growing segment of population in developed countries Currently 60,000 centenarians in the U.S. May be at least 800,000 American centenarians by 2050 General trend worldwide

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Characteristics of the Elderly Population Gerontology: the scientific study of aging Life Expectancy –Increases as adults get older –65- to 74-year-old White Americans have longer life expectancies than African Americans of the same age –By age 75, life expectancies of White- and African-Americans are the same

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Subgroups Young old (60 – 75) Old old (75 – 85) Oldest old ( 85 and older) –Fastest growing segment of population –Suffer from more physical and mental impairments than other age groups

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 17.1

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Health Most older adults rate their health as good Health the single largest factor affecting physical and mental states over time Despite any experiences with disease and disability, elders remain emotionally resilient Adults with cardiovascular disease show earlier declines in mental abilities as do those suffering from Alzheimer’s

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Limitations on Activities Disability – limitations on someone’s ability to perform certain roles and tasks, especially self-help tasks ADL – Activities of Daily Living Such as: bathing, dressing, using the toilet IADL – Instrumental Activities of Daily Living Such as: managing money

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Limitations on Activities Disabilities rise with age. –1/2 of those over 75 have some disabilities with ADL Arthritis and hypertension most common Women considerably more likely than men to suffer from arthritis Rates of disability among the old old and oldest old have declined in recent years

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 17.2

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Individual Heredity Identical twins more similar in length of life than fraternal twins Adults whose parents and grandparents were long-lived tend to live longer Long-lived individuals have lower rates of chronic illnesses such as diabetes

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Health Habits Health habits that predict longevity change very little with age Most crucial variable = physical exercise –Even over age 80, exercise leads to motor skill improvement and muscular strength –Exercise can prevent height loss, too –Eating patterns critical for health, especially calorie restriction

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Physical Changes Brain and Nervous System Between 60 and 90, adults with higher levels of education show significantly less atrophy of the cerebral cortex Reaction time increases for everyday tasks as synaptic speed slows Loss of neurons occurs but not as critical for cognitive functioning as once believed

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers The Senses and Other Bodily Organs Vision Presbyopia (farsightedness) increases Blood flow to eyes decreases, enlarging the “blind spot” and reducing field of vision More difficulty with night vision and responding to rapid changes in brightness Cataracts –Lens inside the eye becomes clouded Vision loss has greater negative effect on elderly adult’s sense of well-being than for other ages

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Hearing Auditory problems more often experienced by men Frequently, problems include less ability to hear high frequency sounds Older adults develop difficulties with word discrimination Noisy conditions hamper hearing in elderly Tinnitus, persistent ringing in the ears, increases with age Hearing aids improve many elders’ quality of life

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Taste, Smell, and Touch Ability to taste four basic flavors does not seem to decline with age BUT –Less saliva secreted –Elders report that flavors seem blander –May be due to loss of sense of smell Sense of smell deteriorates with age. –Loss far greater among elderly men than women Skin of elderly adults less responsive to heat and cold

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 17.3 Age-related Declines in Sense of Smell

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Questions to Ponder How long do you want to live? Will improvements in lifestyle and medicine improve the quality of your elder years so that they are enjoyable? Why or why not? Other than vision, which loss of senses would affect the quality of your life the most? Which could you tolerate the best if it were lost? Why?

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Theories of Biological Aging Longevity Hayflick limit –Each species subject to a time limit beyond which cells simply lose capacity to replicate themselves Maximum human lifespan 110 – 120 years Telomeres –“Timekeeping mechanism” for the organism –Number of telomeres reduces slightly each time a cell divides –There may be crucial number of telomeres –number is too low, disease and death follow quickly

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Theories of Biological Aging Genetically programmed senescence –Gradual deterioration of body systems as organisms age Species-specific genes for aging Repair of genetic material and cross-linking –Accumulation of unrepaired breaks in DNA results in loss of cellular function over time –Cross-linking – when undesirable chemical bonds form between proteins or fats

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Free Radicals Molecules or atoms that posses an unpaired electron –Oxygen-free radicals Enter into many potentially harmful chemical reactions, cause irreparable cellular damage that accumulates with age Antioxidants inhibit formation of free radicals –Foods high in vitamins C, E, and beta carotene typically high in antioxidants –May lead to slightly longer life and lower rates of heart disease

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Theories of Biological Aging Terminal Drop Hypothesis Significant declines part of the dying process Occur within a few years of death Lead to significant drops in functioning before death BUT only changes in cognitive functions seem to support terminal drop hypothesis

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Behavioral Effects of Physical Changes General slowing down Everything takes longer, such as writing things down Decline in speed of nerve impulses responsible for difficulties translating thoughts into actions Slowing hampers complex motor activities such as driving Changes in temperature sensitivity can lead to more accidental burns

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Sleeping and Eating Patterns Adults over 65 –Typically wake more frequently at night –Show decreases in REM sleep –Wake early in morning, go to bed early at night May lose feelings of satiety, thus overeat May become rigid in meal times and food selection to compensate

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Motor Functions Reduction in stamina, dexterity, and balance Loss of balance associated with higher risk of falling –Activities such as golf or Tai Chi may help with balance More problems with fine-motor control –Impairs the rate at which older adults learn new skills, such as computer mouse activities

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Sexual Activity Decreases in sexual activity continue in late adulthood Continued decline in testosterone Certain medications or physical pain may affect sexual activities Stereotypes that portray old age as asexual 70% continue to have sexual activity Women may become more sexually adventurous

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Mental Health Alzheimer’s Disease: very severe form of dementia Early stages become evident very slowly –Subtle memory difficulties, repetitive conversation, disorientation in unfamiliar settings –Memory for recent events begins to go –Memories for long-ago events and well-rehearsed procedures are last to go –Eventually may fail to recognize family members, forget names of common objects, forget how to do routine activities

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Alzheimer’s Disease Declines in ability to communicate Inability to control eating habits Difficulty processing information about others’ emotions Displays of anger and inappropriate outbursts increase Depression increases

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Alzheimer’s Disease Diagnosing issues On autopsy, presence of neurofibrilary tangles and plaque deposits extensive in Alzheimer’s patients Diagnosis difficult because 80% of elderly complain of memory problems Mild cognitive impairment syndrome may offer a way to diagnose the disease

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Alzheimer’s Disease Treatments Galantamine –Increases amounts of some neurotransmitters which can slow progress of the disease Use of anti-inflammatory medication, such as aspirin Training in use of specific everyday strategies and tasks that can improve memory

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Heredity and Alzheimer’s Disease Genetic factors appear in some but not all individuals –Three separate genes Chromosome 19 controls a particular protein –Leads to dendrites and axons becoming tangled Age of onset highly variable –44 to 67 Wide variations in severity of behavioral effects of the disease

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Other Types of Dementia May appear after multiple small strokes – multi-infarct dementia Dementia can be caused by –Depression –Cardiovascular disease –Metabolic disturbances –Parkinson’s disease –Head trauma Many forms involve irreparable brain damage Careful physical examination is needed

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Depression Older adults at greater risk 25% of old old and oldest old may suffer from depression More common among less educated adults regardless of other factors, such as ethnicity

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Depression Risk Factors Inadequate social support Inadequate income Emotional loss of significant others Persistent health concerns –Strongest risk factor –The more disabling the conditions, the more depressive symptoms older adults display

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Depression Risk Factors Depressed women outnumber men 2 to 1 –Women respond to accumulation of everyday stressors –Men respond to traumatic events Poverty puts elderly at high risk

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Depression Ethnic and Cultural Differences Minorities have less education, greater poverty, worse health Mexican and Chinese American immigrants suffer from poor English skills, which is correlated with depression African Americans may have lower rates of clinical depression –May be underdiagnosed –May reflect beliefs that depression is a spiritual problem not a mental state

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Suicide Older white men have highest risk Suicide rates increase in older men with age but remain stable in women Older men have several risk factors that may lead them to commit suicide –Loss of economic status may trouble men more –Death of a spouse plays a role for men Idea that one is a burden to others, especially if health is poor

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 17.4 Gender and Elder Suicide Rates

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Cognitive Changes Memory Forgetfulness increases as we age Short term memory capacity begins to be a problem, especially handling multiple tasks Responses that require cognitive speed show greater decline Strategy learning helps older adults improve memory functions. –Suggests that learning process takes longer

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 17.5 % Older Adults with Moderate to Severe Memory Impairment UPDATE

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Everyday Memory Virtually all everyday memory tasks decline among older adults compared to younger adults –Demonstrated in longitudinal and cross-sectional research, especially over age 70 Prior knowledge a critical factor in memory functioning Loss of speed is key aspect of the process of memory decline

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 17.6 Study of Memory across Adulthood

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Figure 17.7 Strategic Learning in Later Adulthood

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Wisdom and Creativity Factual knowledge only ONE part of wisdom Baltes measured wisdom using major life decision stories –Wisdom central to solving practical life problems –Complex answers rated as being higher in wisdom –Younger adults perform as well as older adults on fictional tasks Wisdom may not be a defining characteristic of the elderly

© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers Wisdom and Creativity Gene Cohen 4 stage theory of mid- to late-life creativity Reevaluation phase – 50’s; reflect on past accomplishments and formulate new goals Liberation – 60’s; freer to create, more tolerant of failures, willing to take more risks Summing-up – 70’s; desire to knit accomplishments together into a cohesive story Encore phase – 80’s; desire to complete unfinished work or fulfill desires