Psychology

What is Psychology? The study of how and why humans think, feel and act as they do. The study of how and why humans think, feel and act as they do. Psychology focuses on the individual, and the personal and unique experiences that influence them at all stages of their lives. Psychology focuses on the individual, and the personal and unique experiences that influence them at all stages of their lives.

Types of Psychology Experimental Psychology Setting up experiments to see how individuals think and act in particular situations Setting up experiments to see how individuals think and act in particular situations Question - Would you help a complete stranger that was being threatened with violence from another person? Question - Would you help a complete stranger that was being threatened with violence from another person?

The Case of Kitty Genovese Kitty Genovese was murdered on the street outside her New York City apartment after loud shouting was heard people witnessed the murder but did nothing to stop it. Kitty Genovese was murdered on the street outside her New York City apartment after loud shouting was heard people witnessed the murder but did nothing to stop it. Psychologists study our unwillingness to get involved in uncomfortable situations. Psychologists study our unwillingness to get involved in uncomfortable situations. People have a tendency see themselves as bystanders in such situations rather than as ACTORS (active participants) People have a tendency see themselves as bystanders in such situations rather than as ACTORS (active participants) The Bystander Effect - Kitty Genovese The Bystander Effect - Kitty Genovese The Bystander Effect - Kitty Genovese The Bystander Effect - Kitty Genovese

When Bystanders Join In 4 years after Genovese was murdered, two psychologists, John Darley and Bibb Latane, wanted to identify the factors that influence bystanders’ decisions to get involved in public situations 4 years after Genovese was murdered, two psychologists, John Darley and Bibb Latane, wanted to identify the factors that influence bystanders’ decisions to get involved in public situations Experiment: What would affect whether or not people would get involved in a room that is filling with smoke. Experiment: What would affect whether or not people would get involved in a room that is filling with smoke. The Smoke-filled Room Study The Smoke-filled Room Study The Smoke-filled Room Study The Smoke-filled Room Study

Conclusions? How does this relate to the Kitty Genovese case? Another similar phenomenon What motivates people to do this? Does this have anything to do with the Kitty Genovese case?

Experimental Methodology Terms: Independent variable: Dependent Variable: Confederates: Placebos:

Some Observational Methods: Survey Methods: Naturalistic Observation: Longitudinal Studies: Interviews:

Clinical Psychology CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY develops programs for treating individuals suffering from mental illnesses and behavioural disorders. CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY develops programs for treating individuals suffering from mental illnesses and behavioural disorders. Eg. Individuals diagnosed with Schizophrenia often seek out- patient care so that they can live fuller, more normal lives. Eg. Individuals diagnosed with Schizophrenia often seek out- patient care so that they can live fuller, more normal lives.

Psychological Schools of Thought Like the other social sciences, psychology has been divided into a number of schools of thought. Some that stand out: Psychoanalytic Theory Psychoanalytic Theory Cognitive-Behaviourism Cognitive-Behaviourism Learning Theory Learning Theory

Psychoanalytic Theory The mind is divided into two parts: the conscious (aware of ) and the unconscious (not aware of) The mind is divided into two parts: the conscious (aware of ) and the unconscious (not aware of) Unconscious mind has more influence than our conscious mind on our personalities and behaviour. Unconscious mind has more influence than our conscious mind on our personalities and behaviour.

The Unconscious Mind Freud Says: The Unconscious mind is divided into three parts: 1. Id – which encourages us to seek physical satisfaction 2. Superego – selfless moral barometer. 3. Ego – the referee between the two; our most conscious self

Sigmund Freud The founder of psychoanalytic theory The founder of psychoanalytic theory He believed our early childhood experiences, usually involving our relationships with parents and family, are stored in our unconscious mind He believed our early childhood experiences, usually involving our relationships with parents and family, are stored in our unconscious mind While we are normally unaware of these memories, they can have a powerful influence on the way we function While we are normally unaware of these memories, they can have a powerful influence on the way we function

Those that live with a general sense of frustration, their behaviour may become neurotic and connected with anxiety or obsessiveness. Those that live with a general sense of frustration, their behaviour may become neurotic and connected with anxiety or obsessiveness. Can be treated using dream analysis, hypnosis and individual counseling. Can be treated using dream analysis, hypnosis and individual counseling. Freud felt that individual sexual satisfaction or frustration was the key element in personality development. Freud felt that individual sexual satisfaction or frustration was the key element in personality development. He coined the phrases “Oedipus complex” and “Penis envy”. He coined the phrases “Oedipus complex” and “Penis envy”.

Alfred Adler ( ) Adler believed that when people do not gain self-esteem and recognition in normal healthy ways, it can result in personality disorders which are now widely referred to as inferiority complex. Adler believed that when people do not gain self-esteem and recognition in normal healthy ways, it can result in personality disorders which are now widely referred to as inferiority complex.

Carl Jung ( ) Responsible for the identification of the Extroverted (outward-looking; outgoing; rely on others for sense of well being) and Introverted (inward- looking; emotionally self sufficient; well being comes from within) personality types. Responsible for the identification of the Extroverted (outward-looking; outgoing; rely on others for sense of well being) and Introverted (inward- looking; emotionally self sufficient; well being comes from within) personality types. Worked closely with Freud but split later in their careers Worked closely with Freud but split later in their careers The other aspect of Jung's work which has been very influential is his approach to the analysis of dreams. The other aspect of Jung's work which has been very influential is his approach to the analysis of dreams.

Behaviourism Behaviourists focus on stimulus (cause) and response (effect) in the form of behaviours. Behaviourists focus on stimulus (cause) and response (effect) in the form of behaviours. They believe that psychologists can predict and modify human behaviour by identifying the factors that motivate it in the first place. They believe that psychologists can predict and modify human behaviour by identifying the factors that motivate it in the first place. Behaviourists placed particular stress on the early childhood years, and the rules or practices parents use to raise their children. Behaviourists placed particular stress on the early childhood years, and the rules or practices parents use to raise their children.

Charles B. Watson ( ) The founder of behaviourism. The founder of behaviourism. He used animal experiments to determine whether strict of flexible learning patterns are more effective. He used animal experiments to determine whether strict of flexible learning patterns are more effective. Wrote book “Psychological Care of the Infant and Child” concluded that children should be brought up using a ‘scientific’, strictly scheduled, rules-based model. Wrote book “Psychological Care of the Infant and Child” concluded that children should be brought up using a ‘scientific’, strictly scheduled, rules-based model.

Benjamin Spock ( ) He believed that a permissive approach to child rearing, rather than a strict one, would result in successful, well-adjusted adults. He believed that a permissive approach to child rearing, rather than a strict one, would result in successful, well-adjusted adults. He encouraged parents to be loving, flexible and supportive He encouraged parents to be loving, flexible and supportive Wrote book “Baby and Child Care” Wrote book “Baby and Child Care”

Learning Theory Learning Theorists agree that humans are born with little instinct but huge potential. Learning Theorists agree that humans are born with little instinct but huge potential. They believe that most human behaviour is learned, especially in child and youth. They believe that most human behaviour is learned, especially in child and youth. By controlling the way in which humans learn behavious, society can have a great influence on their ultimate personalities By controlling the way in which humans learn behavious, society can have a great influence on their ultimate personalities

Psychological Questions Focus on people’s behaviours (what they do) and attitudes (what they think) Focus on people’s behaviours (what they do) and attitudes (what they think) Key Questions: -what must people do to successfully change their behaviours? Key Questions: -what must people do to successfully change their behaviours? -what factors make behaviour-modification programs successful? -do most people need help changing behaviour, or can they be self changers?

Theory of Attitude Change Cognitive Dissonance Theory Cognitive Dissonance Theory Six Stages of Change (Behaviour Modification) -Pre-contemplation (denial, refusal) -Contemplation (questioning) -Preparation (investigation) -Action (commitment) -Maintenance (transition) -Termination (completion) Six Stages of Change (Behaviour Modification) -Pre-contemplation (denial, refusal) -Contemplation (questioning) -Preparation (investigation) -Action (commitment) -Maintenance (transition) -Termination (completion) Positive and Negative Reinforcement Positive and Negative Reinforcement

B.F. Skinner ( ) Theory of OPERANT CONDITIONING: learning can be programmed by whatever consequences follows a particular behaviour Theory of OPERANT CONDITIONING: learning can be programmed by whatever consequences follows a particular behaviour Skinner proved that pigeons could be trained to peck at a particular coloured disk to get food rewards. Skinner proved that pigeons could be trained to peck at a particular coloured disk to get food rewards. Appropriate responses are rewarded. Appropriate responses are rewarded.

Abraham Maslow ( ) Analysis of human needs organized into a hierarchy ranging from basic survival through to the need for love, security and esteem Analysis of human needs organized into a hierarchy ranging from basic survival through to the need for love, security and esteem Maslov’s theories had most profound impact on industrial psychology (making workplace a satisfying experience by raising morale of workers to improve performance) Maslov’s theories had most profound impact on industrial psychology (making workplace a satisfying experience by raising morale of workers to improve performance)

Ivan Pavlov ( ) Pavlov’s experiments with dogs showed that is was possible to get a dog to associate the sound of a bell with the imminent arrival of food Pavlov’s experiments with dogs showed that is was possible to get a dog to associate the sound of a bell with the imminent arrival of food At the sound of a bell, the dog would salivate in anticipation At the sound of a bell, the dog would salivate in anticipation CLASSICAL CONDITIONING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Alfred Bandura (Born in 1925) Bandura concluded that learning is largely a modeling experience and more complicated than a mere stimulus- response effect Bandura concluded that learning is largely a modeling experience and more complicated than a mere stimulus- response effect When humans observe behaviour – either acceptable or unacceptable – they are more likely to practice it. When humans observe behaviour – either acceptable or unacceptable – they are more likely to practice it. Bobo Bobo Bobo Question – What does this mean to us? What applications can be made to today? Question – What does this mean to us? What applications can be made to today?

Activity: Dream Analysis The following is a Jungian dream analysis method. The method is based on the belief that objects and people in a dream have a personal meaning to the dreamer, and that the dreamer (not an analyst) is best able to understand his/her own dream. Often people and objects in our dreams represent parts of ourselves, or ways we would like (or are afraid) to be. For instance, if you dream of your very outgoing friend, Tom, and you feel wonderful in the dream, it might be your unconscious encouraging you to become more outgoing. The following is a Jungian dream analysis method. The method is based on the belief that objects and people in a dream have a personal meaning to the dreamer, and that the dreamer (not an analyst) is best able to understand his/her own dream. Often people and objects in our dreams represent parts of ourselves, or ways we would like (or are afraid) to be. For instance, if you dream of your very outgoing friend, Tom, and you feel wonderful in the dream, it might be your unconscious encouraging you to become more outgoing. Start by recalling a dream you have had, jotting down as many details as you can. (Choose a dream you’ll feel comfortable discussing with others.) Then, working with a small group of students, take turns revealing your dreams while others in the group ask the following sets of questions: Start by recalling a dream you have had, jotting down as many details as you can. (Choose a dream you’ll feel comfortable discussing with others.) Then, working with a small group of students, take turns revealing your dreams while others in the group ask the following sets of questions:

1. What is the setting or settings? What does each place remind you of or make you think of?What does each place remind you of or make you think of? What does it feel like to be in these settings?What does it feel like to be in these settings? What is the mood of the dream (scary, funny, light, peaceful...)?What is the mood of the dream (scary, funny, light, peaceful...)? How does this mood affect you?How does this mood affect you? 2.Who are the people in the dream? (Discuss each person individually.) What is the main characteristic of each; what is each person like? (Jung would ask, “What is the essence of each person?”) For example, organized, funny, worldly....?What is the main characteristic of each; what is each person like? (Jung would ask, “What is the essence of each person?”) For example, organized, funny, worldly....? How do you feel about each person in the dream?How do you feel about each person in the dream? If a person is unknown, what kind of person would you imagine him/her to be given the way s/he looks and acts in the dream?If a person is unknown, what kind of person would you imagine him/her to be given the way s/he looks and acts in the dream? What is each person doing in the dream?What is each person doing in the dream? How do their actions make you feel?How do their actions make you feel? Does a person remind you of anything or anyone in your life?Does a person remind you of anything or anyone in your life? Is there some part of you that is like this person, or would like to be more like this person, or reacts strongly against him/her?Is there some part of you that is like this person, or would like to be more like this person, or reacts strongly against him/her?

3. Describe the objects in your dream as you would to someone from another planet. What are they used for? How do they work?What are they used for? How do they work? Do you like or dislike them?Do you like or dislike them? Do they remind you of anything, any part of yourself, or anyone in your life?Do they remind you of anything, any part of yourself, or anyone in your life? 4. What are the major actions and events in the dream? How do you react to them in the dream?How do you react to them in the dream? How do they make you feel?How do they make you feel? Do they remind you of any situations in real life?Do they remind you of any situations in real life? 5.Considering all the different thoughts that came to mind as you discussed your dream, how do you understand your dream now?

Solomon Asch says: Match the Lines.

Thank you, Confederates. “Later today, you will be a confederate in an experiment called Solomon Ash says: Match the Lines. This means you will be secretly “in” on the purpose of the experiment. When I show a bunch of lines on the projector, you are asked to confidently say B is the same length as the test line (even though it is not). The plan is to try to convince others to answer the same choice as yours.”