MAT 333 Fall 2008

 As we discovered with the Pythagorean Theorem examples, we need a system of geometry to convince ourselves why theorems are true  But what is a “system”?

 The idea of systematizing mathematics was unheard of when Euclid created his Elements in 300 BCE.  Euclid’s work consisted of  definitions  postulates (what we would call “axioms”)  propositions (what we would call “theorems”)

 Axioms are statements that we assume to be true without proof  Why are axioms necessary?  Shouldn’t we always prove things and not assume they are true without proof?

 We want axioms to be  as few in number as possible  as simple or “obvious” as possible  Let’s look at Euclid’s axioms and see how he measures up to these standards

 Euclid’s Axioms are divided into 5 “common notions” and 5 “postulates”  The common notions are algebraic in nature, while the postulates refer to basic properties of geometry

1. Things which equal the same thing are equal to one another. 2. If equals are added to equals, then the sums are equal. 3. If equals are subtracted from equals, then the remainders are equal. 4. Things which coincide with one another are equal to one another. 5. The whole is greater than the part.

1. A straight line segment can be drawn by joining any two points. 2. A straight line segment can be extended indefinitely in a straight line. 3. Given a straight line segment, a circle can be drawn using the segment as radius and one endpoint as center. 4. All right angles are equal. 5. If two lines are drawn which intersect a third in such a way that the sum of the inner angles on one side is less than two right angles, then the two lines inevitably must intersect each other on that side if extended far enough.

 This can be restated in modern terms like this:  Given a line and a point not on that line, there is exactly one other line passing through the point and parallel to the line.  Is this “simple” or “obvious”?

 Euclid’s “propositions” are statements that logically follow from his axioms – we would call these “theorems”  Euclid (and many mathematicians after him) attempted to prove the 5 th Postulate as a theorem so that it did not have to be assumed without proof

 Euclid includes definitions for 23 terms at the beginning of Elements, some of which are listed here. How many can you define?  Euclid did not define the term “distance.” Can you? PointObtuse AngleSemicircle Line SegmentAcute AngleEquilateral Triangle EndpointsCircleSquare LineCenter of a CircleRhombus PerpendicularDiameterParallel Lines

 Euclid’s definition of point is “that which has no part.”  Euclid’s definition of line segment is “a breadthless length”  What do you think of these definitions?

 We have seen that any mathematical system must rely on undefined terms and axioms  Without these, we wouldn’t have anything to talk about or anything to base our proofs on

 An axiomatic system is a list of undefined terms together with a list of statements (called “axioms”) that are assumed to be true without proof.  Our goal will be to create an axiomatic system for geometry, but first we will need to understand how these systems work in general.

 Undefined terms: committee, member  Axiom 1: Each committee is a set of three members  Axiom 2: Each member is on exactly two committees  Axiom 3: No two members may be together on more than one committee  Axiom 4: There is at least one committee

 A model for an axiomatic system is a way to define the undefined terms so that the axioms are all true  Here is a model for the committees system. Check that all the axioms are true.  Members: Alan, Beth, Chris, Dave, Elena, Fred  Committees: {A,B,C}, {A,D,E}, {B,D,F}, {C,E,F}

 Undefined terms: element, product  Axiom 1: Given two elements x and y, the product of x and y, denoted x * y, is a unique defined element  Axiom 2: Given elements x, y, and z, the equation (x * y) * z = x * (y * z) is always true  Axiom 3: There is an element e, called the identity, such that e * x = x = x * e for all elements x.

 What models of the monoid system can you think of?  elements = integers, product = *  elements = real numbers, product = *  elements = integers, product = +  elements = 2x2 matrices, product = matrix multiplication

 Here is a theorem for the committees system  Theorem: There cannot be exactly four members.  The proof involves assuming that there can be four members and reaching a contradiction.

 An axiom is independent from the other axioms in a system if it cannot be proven from the other axioms.  Euclid wanted to prove that his 5 th postulate was dependent on the other axioms, but could not find a proof  If you can find a model where the axiom is false, but all the other axioms are true, then the axiom is independent

 This model shows that Axiom 1 of the Committees system is independent of the others  Members: Alan, Beth, Chris, Dave  Committees: {A,B}, {B,C,D}, {A,C}, {D}

 If we could find a model where Euclid’s axioms (without the 5 th postulate) are all true, and the 5 th postulate is false, we will have proved that the 5 th postulate is independent  The only way to convince ourselves that such a model cannot exist is to prove it!

 An axiomatic system is consistent if there are no internal contradictions among the axioms  If some of the axioms contradict each other, then they can’t all be true all at the same time  So finding a model of an axiomatic system is enough to prove the axioms are consistent

 An axiomatic system is complete if all statements that are true in the system can be proved from the axioms  There is a famous fact called Gödel’s Incompleteness Theorem that tells us there is no “sufficiently complex” axiomatic system that is both consistent and complete

 We will be using this kind of framework to develop our system of geometry  We will start with some undefined terms and a short list of axioms  We will expand the list of axioms only when necessary