Chapter 11 – Work System Design Operations Management by R. Dan Reid & Nada R. Sanders 2nd Edition © Wiley 2005 PowerPoint Presentation by R.B. Clough - UNH

Learning Objectives Describe the elements of work system design and the objectives of each element Describe relevant job design issues Describe methods analysis Understand the importance of work measurement Describe how to do a time study Describe how to do work sampling Develop standard times Show how to use work standards Describe compensation plans Describe learning curves

Work System Design Designing a work system is part of developing an operations strategy The work system includes: Job design Work measurements Worker compensation

Job Design Jobs are designed by answering questions like: What is the job’s description? What is the purpose of the job? Where is the job done? Who does the job? What background, training, or skills are required to do the job?

Additional Job Design Factors Technical feasibility: Whether the job is within physical & mental capabilities of the workforce Economic feasibility: Whether the cost of performing the job is less than the value it adds Behavioral feasibility: Whether the job is intrinsically satisfying

Should the Job Be Automated? Safety & risk of injury to workers Repetitive nature of the task (monotonous?) Degree of precision required Complexity of the task Need for empathy, compassion, or other emotional elements Need for personal customer relationships

Specialization: Management’s View Advantages: Readily available labor Minimal training required Reasonable wages costs High productivity Disadvantages: High absenteeism High turnover rates High scrap rates High number of employee grievances filed

Specialization: Employee’s View Advantages: Minimal credentials required Minimal responsibilities Minimal mental effort needed Reasonable wages Disadvantages: Boredom Little growth opportunity Little control over work Little room for initiative Little intrinsic satisfaction

Eliminating Employee Boredom Job enlargement Horizontal expansion of the job by increasing the scope of the work assigned, e.g. two person assembly cells replacing a four person assembly line Job enrichment Vertical expansion of the job by increased worker responsibility Adding work planning or inspection to a routine assembly task Job rotation Shifting of cross trained workers to other tasks Broadens understanding and can reduce fatigue

Job Design with Work Teams Problem-solving teams: Small groups, trained in problem-solving techniques. Used to identify, analyze, & propose solutions to workplace problems Special-purpose task forces: Highly-focused, short-term teams with a focused agenda (often cross-functional) Self-directed or self-managed teams: Team members work through consensus to plan, manage, & control their assigned work flow

Alternative Workplaces Alternative workplaces are made possible by technologies like email, e-networks, cell phones, & video conferencing. Current situation: More than 30 million employees work in alternative workspaces A survey at IBM reveals that 87% of alternative workplace employees believe their effectiveness has increased significantly Sun Microsystems gives many of its designers the option to work at home GE sales people work from home and hotel offices

Methods Analysis A detailed step-by-step analysis of how a given job is performed Can distinguish between value-added & non-value-added steps Analysis can revise the procedure to improve productivity After improvement, must revise the new standard operating procedure Follow-up to insure that changes actually improve the operation

Picks up wire in left hand and moves it to the terminal Methods Analysis at FEAT Company: The methods analyst has been asked to review the transformer wiring operation because of past quality problems from poor solder joints. The solder operation sequence and the workstation layout are shown below. Picks up wire in left hand and moves it to the terminal Simultaneously picks up solder iron in right hand and moves to the terminal Solders wire to terminal and replaces solder iron in holder Solders terminal #1, then #2 - #6, going right to left

Analyst’s Recommendations: A Analyst’s Recommendations: A. Maize reviews the workplace layout and the present flow chart (below), and recommends reversing the solder sequence from #6-#1, which is less problematic for the right handed operator. He schedules a follow up to insure that the new method has fixed the quality problem.

Importance of the Work Environment Working conditions can effect worker productivity, product quality, and worker safety Temperature, ventilation, noise, and lighting are all factors in work system design Congress passed OSHA in 1970 to mandate specific safety conditions that must be met The Americans with Disabilities Act also outlines reasonable workplace accommodations that industry must make in hiring people with some limitations

Work Measurement Standard time: Standard time is used in: The length of time a qualified worker, using appropriate tools & procedures, will take to complete a job Standard time is used in: Costing the labor component of products Tracking employee performance Scheduling & planning required resources

Setting Standard Times Step 1: Choose the specific job to be studied Step 2: Inform the worker of the study Step 3: Break the job into distinguishable elements Step 4: Calculate the number of cycles to observe Step 5: Time each element, record data & rate the worker’s performance Step 6: Compute the standard time

Doing a Time Study When making a time study several decisions are made to assure desired results: # of observations to make Desired level of accuracy Desired level of confidence for the estimated standard time Desired accuracy level is typically expressed as a % of the mean observed times In next column is a formula for determining the number of observations needed n: number of observations z: provides desired statistical confidence (e.g.: 1.96 for 95%) s: observed standard deviation in time required to complete the task element a: desired accuracy or precision x-bar: the mean observed time to complete the task

Pat’s Pizza Place: Pat hires an analyst to determine a standard time to prepare a large pepperoni and cheese pizza. He takes 10 observations of the 7 elements and calculates the mean time and the standard deviation per element. He must then calculate the # of observations to be within 5% of the true mean 95% of the time. The analyst must calculate the observations for each element to determine how many additional observations must be taken. The maximum number of 25 (in this case) for element #7 means that an additional 15 observations must be made and then the observed times are revised.

Other Time Factors Used in Calculating Standard Time The normal time (NT) is the mean observed time multiplied by the performance rating factor (PRF) The PRF is a subjective estimate of a worker’s pace relative to a normal work pace The frequency of occurrence (F) is how often the element must be done each cycle. NT=(OT)(PRF)(F) The allowance factor (AF) is the amount of time allowed for personal, fatigue, and unavoidable delays Standard Time=normal time x allowance factor, where:

Calculating Normal Time and Standard Time at Pat’s Pizza The standard time for preparing a large, hand-tossed pepperoni pizza is 2.312 minutes. This means that a worker can prepare 207 pizzas in an 8-hour shift (480 minutes divided by 2.312 minutes)

Other Time Study Methods Elemental time data for typical work elements from previously completed time studies can be stored in a data base for use on future similar studies. Predetermined time data (e.g. MTM and MTS) is a larger database of valid work element times used to set standards for common job elements Reach, grasp, move, engage, insert, turn, etc. Work Sampling is a technique for estimating the proportion of time a worker spends on an activity

Work Sampling Procedure Identify the worker or machine to be sampled Define the activities to be observed Estimate the sample size based on level of accuracy and confidence level Develop the random observation schedule. Make observations over a time period that is representative of normal work conditions Observe, record data, and check to see if the estimated sample size remains valid Estimate the proportion of the time spent on the given activity

Work Sampling Example: We are interested in estimating the proportion of time spent by secretaries arranging and scheduling travel. We are considering the possibility of bringing an on site travel agency to free up secretaries from this time consuming task. We estimate that the proportion might be as high as .50. Step 1 – We need to estimate the number of observations needed to provide an estimate with 97% confidence (z=2.17), and the resulting estimate will be within 5% of its true value. We use Step 2 – Based on the first 30 observations the secretary was making travel reservations 6 times (6 out of 30 observations = 0.2). With this new estimate, recalculate the sample size needed . Final Step – After making the 302 observations, the secretary was making reservations 60 times or 19.9%. This estimate can now be used to make the decision on savings that might result by consolidating this task with an in house travel agency

Worker Compensation Systems Compensation is the third part of work system design Time-based plans (day pay) versus output-based systems (incentive pay) Group incentive plans: profit sharing & gain sharing Plans put part of a worker’s salary at risk Does the compensation system undermine teamwork? Does plan prevent free-riders not doing their fair share? Does the incentive plan encourage workers to support the long-term health of the organization?

Learning Curves When the number of times the task is repeated doubles, the time per task reduces as shown in the graph With an 85% learning curve rate, the 2nd time a task is done will take 85% of the 1st time. The 4th time will take 85% of the 2nd If an employee took 12 hours to complete an initial task, how long will the 16th time take (4th doubling) T x Ln = time required to perform a task the nth time T = the time required to perform the task the first time L = the rate of learning n = the number of times the task has doubled

Chapter 11 Highlights Work system design involves job design, work measurements, and worker compensation. Relevant job design issues include design feasibility, the choice of human or machine, the use of teams, and the location where the work is to be done. Methods or process analysis is concerned with how the employee does the job and is used to make improvements. Work measurement is used to determine standard times and are usually based on time studies. Standard times are used for product costing, process evaluations, and for planning workloads and staffing.

Chapter 11 Highlights (Continued) Doing a time study requires breaking the job into work elements and determining the number of observations. Work sampling involves random observations of a worker to determine the proportion of time spent on each activity. Standard times are developed with time studies, elemental time data, and predetermined time data. Worker compensation systems are time-based or out-put based and can be based on individual or group performance. Learning curves show the rate of learning that occurs when an employee repeats the same task over time.

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