Barriers to STEM Careers: A Social Cognitive Perspective Gail Hackett, Professor, Psychology in Education Vice Provost & Dean, University College

Self efficacy & Social Cognitive Career Theory: Origins Based on Albert Bandura’s empirical/theoretical work over 4+ decades (1969, 1977, 1986, 1997) Application of Bandura’s social cognitive theory to career behavior (Lent, Brown & Hackett) Social cognitive theory accords a central role to cognitive, vicarious, self-regulatory and self-reflective processes in human adaptation and change (i.e., human agency) Stands in contrast to conceptions of human functioning that overemphasize environmental or biological factors Theory contains direct implications for intervention

Background Contextual Affordances Person Inputs - Predispositions - Gender - Race/ethnicity - Disability/ Health status Learning Experiences Self-efficacy Expectations Outcome Expectations InterestsGoalsActions Contextual Influences Proximal to Choice Behavior Social Cognitive Career Theory (Lent, Brown & Hackett, 1994, 2000, 2002)

Prior Performance Accomplishment Vicarious Learning Social Persuasion Physiological and Affective Reactions Self-Efficacy Learning Influences: Sources of Self-Efficacy Information

Learning Experiences Self-efficacy Expectations Outcome Expectations SCCT Model: Learning effects on efficacy and outcome expectations

Self-efficacy Expectations Outcome Expectations InterestsGoalsActions Contextual Influences Proximal to Choice Behavior SCCT Model: Contextual influences on interests, goals and actions

Targets for Intervention Provide opportunities to build competencies Strengthen self-efficacy beliefs via the four sources of information  Realistic self- appraisal of performance accomplishments Engage in mastery experiences Recognize strong performance Develop accurate attributions of performance (success and failure)  Provide strong and varied models Diversity of academic, work models along varied dimensions of similarity Coping vs. mastery modeling  Couple verbal/social persuasion with other information sources  Address undermining anxiety related to performance and choice Strengthen & expand vocational interests in high aptitude areas  Link education to work/careers via career exploration (from written/visual information thru simulations, modeling, & job shadowing to practica & internships, research & work experience ) Address unrealistic outcome expectations Minimize barriers & enhance facilitators Clarify academic & career goals

Background Contextual Affordances Person Inputs - Predispositions - Gender - Race/ethnicity - Disability/ Health status Learning Experiences Self-efficacy Expectations Outcome Expectations InterestsGoalsActions Contextual Influences Proximal to Choice Behavior Barriers to STEM Careers STEM Barriers & Supports (8 th & 10 th grades; College)

Development of a Taxonomy of Supports & Barriers to STEM Interests & Entry Semi-structured interviews focusing on perceived barriers and supports to math and science for 8 th graders; 10 th graders; college sophomores (N= 113) & focus groups with teachers, parents, and students at each level Sample Questions from Interviews: What did you like about math or science in Elementary (or Junior or Senior) high school? On a scale of 1 to 5, how well did you do in math in elementary/junior or senior high? In science? Why did you rank yourself there? Was there a turning point that changed your opinion of yourself as “good in math or science” or “not good in math or science?” Describe what happened. How did your teachers (parents) help you to do well in math? In what ways? In science? In what ways? How did teachers (parents) encourage you to do well in math or science? What did they say or do that was particularly encouraging? What did they say or do that you felt was discouraging? Taxonomy of Supports & Barriers derived from interviews, focus groups, and research literature

Taxonomy of Supports/Barriers to STEM Interests, Choices Parental/Family—help on homework, encouragement “They encouraged me but it had been so long since either one had taken math courses that they weren’t much help.” Institutional/School—teaching method, encouragement, learning environment “They are encouraging when they can get down on that personal level, rather than just being a teacher” Social—peer influence, role model, minority status “I’ve only had male math teachers.” Financial/Environmental— opportunities and resources, gender role stereotypes “ I tried to talk to my counselor once but she just threw a lot of pamphlets at me… she steers me towards other things than what I’m here for and it is discouraging.” Internal/Individual—self-efficacy, interests, perception of difficulty “ Before class with friends I’m open to questions but in class I get embarrassed to ask questions. I don’t want anyone to think I’m an idiot.”

Taxonomy/Supports Parental/Family Help/aid from family in math/science Knowledge base in math and science in family Encouragement to do well in math/science Values math/science Strong role models in math/science Family involvement in career decision- making related to in math/science Support for math/science career choices Institutional/School Encouragement from math/science teachers Inspirational teacher(s) in math/science School professionals interested and engaged in child’s math/science career goals Effective math/science teaching method Math/science teachers quick to help when needed Challenging math/science coursework available

Taxonomy/Supports (continued) Financial/Environmental Exposure to math/science role models of same gender/ethnicity Exposure to math/science enrichment (tutor, math/science camp, computer, etc.) Social Thought of as competent in math/science by social group Peer group involved in math/science Discusses math/science career aspirations with social group Internal/Individual High & strong math/science self-efficacy Obtained mastery experiences in math/science Has identified math/science career goal Able to see applicability of math/science in careers Resilience – willingness to work hard in math/science

Taxonomy/Barriers Parental/Family Little help in math/science fields from parents Little encouragement received in math/science Lack of role models in math/science Disengagement or disagreement in career plans in math/science Low aspirations or expectations for educational attainment in math/science Family members do not have/offer math/science knowledge Institutional/School Ineffective teaching method in math/science courses Little to no encouragement from teachers or school environment in math/science Teachers unwilling to provide extra help in math/science Lack of educational opportunity, not challenged in class in math/science Inadequate academic preparation in math/science Negative displays of annoyance, frustration from teacher in math/science Poor learning environment in math/science courses Lack of advice or guidance in math/science

Taxonomy/Barriers (continued) Financial Environment Disruptions in math/science education Gender role stereotypes for math/science careers Lack of opportunities and resources for math/science enrichment Lack of exposure to math/science role models of same gender or ethnicity Null encouragement in math/science Social Perception of peer rejection if achieves in math/science - desire to “fit in” Peer group not involved in math/science No communication about career plans in regards to math/science Minority status in math/science courses Internal/Individual Low math/science self-efficacy Lack of interest in math/science Questioning self/self doubt in math/science courses Perception of work load/difficulty of math/science courses Initiative to partake in help-seeking behavior in math/science Lack of understanding of real-world applications of math/science Perception of future role conflict with math/science career

Dissemination/Next Steps NSF Funding to use Taxonomy of Supports & Barriers as an intervention tool Taxonomy to be posted on web Taxonomy items linked to: Examples of the supports/barriers from student interviews, including audio and video exemplars Ideas for intervention by developmental level for classroom teachers, counselors, school administrators, parents, and students themselves Direct links to intervention tools on the web