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a) beyond the orbit of Neptune. b) between Earth and the Sun. c) between Mars and Jupiter. d) in the orbit of Jupiter, but 60 degrees ahead or behind it. e) orbiting the jovian planets in captured, retrograde orbits. Most asteroids are found Question 7

a) beyond the orbit of Neptune. b) between Earth and the Sun. c) between Mars and Jupiter. d) in the orbit of Jupiter, but 60 degrees ahead or behind it. e) orbiting the jovian planets in captured, retrograde orbits. Question 7 Most asteroids are found The Asteroid Belt is located between 2.1 and 3.3 A U from the Sun.

The Structure of the Solar System ~ 45 AU~ 5 AU L4 L5 L3

Lagrange Points

Interplanetary Matter: Asteroids The inner solar system, showing the asteroid belt, Earth-crossing asteroids, and Trojan asteroids

Interplanetary Matter: Asteroids Large picture: The path of Icarus, an Earth- crossing asteroid Inset: Ceres, the largest asteroid

Asteroids and meteoroids have rocky composition; asteroids are bigger. (above) Asteroid Ida with its moon, Dactyl (below) Asteroid Gaspra (above) Asteroid Mathilde Interplanetary Matter: Asteroids

Asteroid Eros

Comets are icy, with some rocky parts. The basic components of a comet Interplanetary Matter: Comets

The solar wind means the ion tail always points away from the Sun. The dust tail also tends to point away from the Sun, but the dust particles are more massive and lag somewhat, forming a curved tail.

Interplanetary Matter: Comets The internal structure of the cometary nucleus

Oort Cloud The size, shape, and orientation of cometary orbits depend on their location. Oort cloud comets rarely enter the inner solar system.

Meteor Showers Meteor showers are associated with comets – they are the debris left over when a comet breaks up.

Meteor Showers

Question 9 Compared to asteroids, comets show all of these properties EXCEPT a)their densities are higher. b)their orbits tend to be more elliptical. c)they tend to be made of ice. d)they can look fuzzy, whereas asteroids appear as moving points of light. e)their average distances from the Sun are far greater.

Question 9 Compared to asteroids, comets show all of these properties EXCEPT Comets have densities much lower than asteroids or planets. a)their densities are higher. b)their orbits tend to be more elliptical. c)they tend to be made of ice. d)they can look fuzzy, whereas asteroids appear as moving points of light. e)their average distances from the Sun are far greater.

What causes a meteor shower? Question 10 a) A comet and an asteroid collide. b) Earth runs into a stray swarm of asteroids. c) Earth runs into the debris of an old comet littering its orbit. d) Meteorites are ejected from the Moon. e) Debris from a supernova enters Earth ’ s atmosphere

What causes a meteor shower? Question 10 Meteor showers can generate a few shooting stars, to hundreds of thousands, seen in an hour. a) A comet and an asteroid collide. b) Earth runs into a stray swarm of asteroids. c) Earth runs into the debris of an old comet littering its orbit. d) Meteorites are ejected from the Moon. e) Debris from a supernova enters Earth ’ s atmosphere

Chapter 5: The Earth

Pale Blue Dot Earth as seen from Voyager 1, when it was 6 billion km from home.

General Features Mass: M Earth = 6 x g Radius: R Earth = 6378 km Density: p = 5.5 g/cm 3 Age: 4.6 billion years

Earth's Internal Structure Crust: thin. Much Si and Al (lots of granite). Two-thirds covered by oceans. How do we know? Earthquakes. See later Mantle is mostly solid, mostly basalt (Fe, Mg, Si). Cracks in mantle allow molten material to rise => volcanoes. Core temperature is 6000 K. Metallic - mostly nickel and iron. Outer core molten, inner core solid. Atmosphere very thin

Earth's Atmosphere 78% Nitrogen 21% Oxygen gas is ionized by solar radiation ozone is O 3, which absorbs solar UV efficiently, thus heating stratosphere commercial jet altitudes temperature on a cool day Original gases disappeared. Atmosphere is mostly due to volcanoes and plants!

Ionosphere Particles in the upper reaches of the atmosphere are ionized by the sun. Radio signals below ~20 MHz can “ bounce ” off the ionosphere allowing Communication “ over the horizon ” (or mountains)

Earthquakes They are vibrations in the solid Earth, or seismic waves. Two kinds go through Earth, P-waves ("primary") and S-waves ("secondary"):

How do they measure where Earthquakes are centered? * * * seismic stations

Like all waves, seismic waves bend when they encounter changes in density. If density change is gradual, wave path is curved. S-waves are unable to travel in liquid. Thus, measurement of seismic wave gives info on density of Earth's interior and which layers are solid/molten. But faint P waves seen in shadow zone, refracting off dense inner core Curved paths of P and S waves: density must slowly increase with depth Zone with no S waves: must be a liquid core that stops them No P waves too: they must bend sharply at core boundary

Earth's Interior Structure Average density Crust Mantle Core 5.5 g/cm 3 3 g/cm 3 5 g/cm 3 11 g/cm 3 Density increases with depth => "differentiation" Earth must have been molten once, allowing denser material to sink, as it started to cool and solidify.

Earthquakes and volcanoes are related, and also don't occur at random places. They outline plates. Plates moving at a few cm/year. "Continental drift" or "plate tectonics"

When plates meet... 1) Head-on collision (Himalayas) 2) "Subduction zone" (one slides under the other) (Andes) 3) "Rift zone" (two plates moving apart) (Mid-Atlantic Ridge) 4) They may just slide past each other (San Andreas Fault) side view top view => mountain ranges, trenches, earthquakes, volcanoes

Clicker Question: Sunlight absorbed by the Earth’s surface is reemitted in the form of? A: radio waves B: infrared radiation C: visible radiation D: ultraviolet radiation E: X-ray radiation

The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a rift zone.

What causes the drift? Convection! Mantle slightly fluid and can support convection. Plates ride on top of convective cells. Lava flows through cell boundaries. Earth loses internal heat this way. Cycles take ~10 8 years. Plates form lithosphere (crust and solid upper mantle). Partially melted, circulating part of mantle is asthenosphere.

Pangaea Theory: 200 million years ago, all the continents were together!