Democracy on the African Continent: Colonialism, Tribalism and the Future Country Focus: Nigeria

Democracy Is democracy an instrument? A tool for achieving value based goals? Human rights Justice Is democracy dependent on the emergence of stable, diversified economies? What is the role of an independent civil society?

Status – Liberal Democracy Commitment: Benin Botswana Mali Madagascar Mauritius Namibia South Africa

Country Status: Economic Reform, Multi-party Elections Burkina Faso Kenya Malawi Mozambique Senegal Tanzania Uganda Zambia

Country Status: Development without Democracy Burundi Eritrea Gabon Gambia Niger Ethiopia Rwanda

Country Status: Collapse Angola Cameroon Chad Congo Nigeria** Sierra Leone Somalia Sudan

Economic & Political Liberalization Is democratization the only solution to systemic political crisis? Are there economic alternatives beyond liberal market economies? Does democracy spring from economic and social pluralism? For some this is indeed the true explanation for the global spread of democracy. How would these scholars address China? Clearly there is a connection but it is not necessarily causal (Thus, liberal economies may be a necessary condition of democratization but they are clearly NOT sufficient conditions).

Western models applied to Africa? Western policymakers handicapped by their fundamental misunderstanding of African nations, the conflicts, the needs, wants, demands of citizens. Equivalent to statement “Ronald Reagan’s foreign policy caused the collapse of the Soviet Union”. Democratic formation is not linear.

History and Political Culture: Decolonization and Nationhood “The scramble of Africa” Decolonization and the creation of national borders for independence occurred quickly and according to the convenience of colonial powers. Result is a continent-wide structure of countries whose citizens have little reason to identify with one another (nationhood) Cultural, economic, environmental, realities were ignored Today extremely diverse groups of people must co-habit as “citizens” Significant barrier to growth of a common identity (nation)…no “glue”, no common culture.

Civil Society in Africa? The autonomous sphere between the state and the family or individual. This sphere limits governmental action (stops the entropy). Artificial national borders enhance cultural and linguistic disunity…making it virtually impossible for an “autonomous sphere” to emerge. Some local level groups: age, ethnicity, religion, self- help, local issue groups. No systematic integration of these groups into the economy (subsistence production continues).

Explanation for absence of civil society? Predatory state in post-colonial era has pushed people out of a broader society. Tribalism, ethnicity, kinship enhanced. These structures are so discrete that they cannot produce a broad base of support for anything => no chance for democracy. Modern tribalism the dominant organizational form in Africa today. Ethiopia, Sudan, Uganda, Chad, Burundi Chronic violence based in tribalism, ethnicity, kinship

Requirements of Democracy – Barriers in Africa Accountability via communication. Education, citizen identification of public versus private. Pro-modernization values. Africans dispersed in rural communities. Absence of education, no systematic national identification. Anti-modernization values (subsistence). Religion provides social/economic foundation of traditional societies. Differences of faith are not reconcilable. This supercedes government action and reinforces ethnic/regional cleavages. Extreme poverty keeps other citizens from participation in the political system.

Economic re-adjustment? IMF programs have forced structural adjustment in many African nations. In many cases programs have enjoyed some success but still citizens remain poor, and large numbers of citizens are poorer than before. Ex: Tanzania 50% of population at $1/day. Conclusion: economic development before democratization? Sources of Africa’s problems? Itself, international community, international trade system (complexity).

Africa and the World Increasingly marginalized in global economy. Debt increases with few options for reduction. International community pushing democracy but not promoting rational economic development, i.e, 50% of a national population cannot stay in poverty if democracy is to stabilize and expand. Equality of opportunity non-existent. Personal rule emerged post-independence, lacks institutional foundation.

Nigeria Population 120 million Independence 1960 Democratic transition: 1979, 1989, 1995, 1999 President: Olusegun Obasanjo Religion: 50% Muslim, 40% Christian, 10% indigenous beliefs Primary export: oil

Political Culture: Geography and Ethnicity 250 ethnic groups Size of the groups varies Groups are geographically concentrated Hausa-Fulani (north) Igbo (southeast) Yoruba (southwest)

Political Culture: History 1800s dominated by various foreign groups Goal of occupying groups: extraction of resources and exploitation of people for cheap labor (slave trade) slave trade eliminated; Trade in goods continued British colony Colonial government inappropriate to Nigerian political situation, i.e., tribal divisions More authoritarian approach on the part of British authorities One set of rules for the British Second set of rules for the Nigerians Consequence is conflicting message about democracy  Democratic institutions  Authoritarian political culture

Religion Religion reflects Muslim/Christian split from north to south Hausa-Fulani Islam Militaristic Northern region politically dominant Yoruba Christian (some Muslims or indigenous belief systems) Southwest region, part of the commercially dominant south Igbo Southeast region, part of the commercially dominant south Christian

Nigerian Nationalism Return of freed slaves World war II veterans Educated returnees Civil violence experiences Coups prior to Biafran War Biafran War coalition Continued national recruitment by military Domination of officer corps by elites

Effects of Fragmentation Nigerians oriented toward political involvement are identified by Exposure to formal education Involvement in modern economy (participant versus subject or parochial orientations) Pattern of involvement - clientelism Limited legitimacy of opposition High efficacy but low trust Political corruption problematic Two dominant democratic orientations: Freedom and political accountability

Political Socialization Agents of socialization Family, nuclear or extended (polygamous in the north) Schools, valued as necessary to advancement (community builders) Language, linguistic pluralism Newspapers, primary source of political information but limited by illiteracy Mass media and propaganda – radio critical source The state – launches propaganda Urbanization Religion

Political Recruitment Politicization of the military Recruitment of officers from university graduates Recruitment according to ethnic group Transfer of officer corps after Biafran war 1966 independence movement of oil rich eastern region Leadership of military and professed belief in civilian rule Backing by administrative class Exclusion of strangers

Nigeria and the Niger River Valley