Chapter 10

Motives – needs, wants, desires leading to goal- directed behavior Drive theories – an internal state of tension motivates an organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension; seeks to maintain homeostasis, or a state of equilibrium or stability. Incentive theories – regulation by external stimuli, i.e stimuli…ice cream, an A, money, etc. Evolutionary theories – natural selection maximizes survival and reproductive success, i.e. affiliation, achievement, dominance, aggression, and sex drive in terms of adaptive value

 Arousal theories- people take certain actions to either decrease or increase levels of arousal; we are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, although this level can vary based on the individual or the situation. EX. I feel bored, so I’m going to do my homework. EX. I’ve been out too much, so I’m going to go home and write in my journal.  Humanistic Theory of Motivation- people are motivated to be individuals and reach their potential. See Maslow's hierarchy of needs and self-actualization. EX. I’m going to college because I know I have unique abilities and a glorious potential in my chosen field.  General adaptation theories- People are motivated to relieve stress. Dr. Hans Selye, an endocrinologist, developed a three- stage model of the body's response to stress. He called his theory the general adaptation syndrome (GAS). See next slide.

1. Alarm Reaction –  begins when the body recognizes that it must fend off some physical or psychological danger. Emotions run high.  Activity of the sympathetic nervous system is increased.  If stimulus disappears, we return to homeostasis. If not Resistance –  physical symptoms and other signs of strain appear as we struggle against increasing psychological disorganization.  If stress is extreme or prolonged, we may turn in desperation to inappropriate coping techniques and cling to them rigidly, despite evidence they are not working.  If we succeed in reducing the stress, we return to a normal state. If not Exhaustion –  Some people lose touch with reality and show signs of emotional disorder or mental illness at this stage.  Others show signs of “burnout” including inability to concentrate, irritability, procrastination, and a cynical belief that nothing is worthwhile. Some victims of burnout turn to alcohol or drugs to cope with the stress-induced exhaustion.  The physiological reactions that prepared us to cope effectively in the alarm and resistance phases weaken us in the long run.  If the stress continues, the person may suffer irreparable physical or psychological damage or even death.

 Biological vs Social Motives  Biological: Based on nature’s Big 2: survival and reproduction. Includes drive theories (particularly with goal of returning to homeostasis) and evolutionary theories.  Social: Based on wanting to succeed in your environment, especially in relation to other people. Includes drive, incentive theories, and evolutionary theories.

Figure 10.2 The diversity of human motives

 Intrinsic motivation: motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself; motivation exists within the individual rather than relying on any external pressure.  Extrinsic motivation: motivation that is driven by external rewards connected to completing the task; motivation proceeds from the environment.  The overjustification effect: offers of rewards (extrinsic) motivation decreases the subject’s intrinsic motivation.  EX. Sabrina would often help other students, because she believed that was the right thing to do (intrinsic). This year, Sabrina’s teacher gives her a green card every time she helps a student (extrinsic). The next year, Sabrina’s teacher doesn’t give out green cards. Sabrina in turn stops helping students (the overjustification effect).

 What’s the connection between motivation and emotion?

 THE POINT: Emotion in NOT JUST mental. It’s physical, too! Interesting Facts  Polygraph tests are no longer admitted as evidence in court cases.  Polygraph tests are nonetheless great tools to choose suspects and track down leads.  So, what comes first? The chicken or the egg?  Does physiology cause emotion, or does emotion cause a physiological reaction? By the way, how does cognition play into all of this? Emotion and Polygraph Testing

 Key Points  James-Lange Theory  Cannon-Bard Theory  Schachter’s Two- factor Theory  Evolutionary Theories of Emotion  Notes Summary: (Spiral) Theories of Emotion Cornell Notes: What are the primary similarities and differences among the four major theories of emotion?

Figure Cross-cultural comparisons of people’s ability to recognize emotions from facial expressions

 first comes a distinct physiological response, then comes our experienced emotion.  Feel afraid because pulse is racing.  Physical reaction causes emotion. In other words, you infer emotion semi-consciously from a physical reaction.  E.g. You see a cute guy, your pulse races, and you feel excited because your pulse is racing.

 our physiological response and experienced emotion are separate yet simultaneous. One does not cause the other.  Thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex (creating consciousness of the emotion) and the autonomic nervous system (creating visceral arousal)  E.g. You see a cute guy, the information is sent to the thalamus, which relays the signals simultaneously to the cortex and to the autonomic nervous system. Thus, the emotion of “excitement” and physical arousal occur simultaneously.

 Experience of emotion grows from our awareness of our body’s arousal. However, since emotions are physiologically similar, an emotional experience requires a conscious interpretation of the arousal.  The two factors: (1) autonomic/physical arousal (2) cognitive interpretation  You look to external cues to decide what to feel.  Physical arousal causes you to consciously survey your surroundings for an explanation of the arousal. Your conscious interpretation of your surroundings produces emotion.  E.g. You feel autonomic arousal and look around to see why…if there’s a cute boy, you feel excitement.

 Innate reactions with little cognitive interpretation  Robert Plutchik (1984, 1993) has devised a model of how primary emotions blend together to form secondary emotions. Emotional intensity: diversity in emotion is a product of variations in emotional intensity, as well as blending of primary emotions. Each vertical slice is a primary emotion that can be subdivides into emotional expressions of varied intensity, ranging from most intense (top) to least intense (bottom).

Figure Primary emotions

 Can emotion really be figured out formulaically?  Maybe not.

 Misattribution of arousal can occur when people misinterpret their autonomic arousal. Dutton and Aron (1974) conducted a study where they arranged for young men crossing two bridges to meet an attractive female with a questionnaire in hand…one bridge was 10 feet above a stream, while the other was a swaying, 230 foot suspension bridge. The suspension bridge men called the woman for a date significantly more often than the low bridge men, suggesting misattribution of arousal as attraction rather than fear.