Introduction—Grammatical Hierarchy 导论 — 语法层次

Grammatical Hierarchy Grammatical Hierarchy Grammar is the structural system of a language. The grammar of the English languages is organized in to five ranks: the sentence, the clause, the phrase, the word and the morpheme. Each rank is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank. A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituents — the morpheme. Grammar is the structural system of a language. The grammar of the English languages is organized in to five ranks: the sentence, the clause, the phrase, the word and the morpheme. Each rank is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank. A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituents — the morpheme.

Sentence Clause NP VP PrepP Det N Aux Adv MV Prep Det N These under-graduate-s are rapid-ly improving in their writ-ing Sentence Clause NP VP PrepP Det N Aux Adv MV Prep Det N These under-graduate-s are rapid-ly improving in their writ-ing

0.1 Morpheme ( 词素）  The morpheme is the minimum or smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speech. Morphemes fall into two categories: free morphemes and bound morphemes.

 1 ） Free morphemes ( 自由词素）  本身具有完整意义并能作为 “ 简单词 ” 而单独使用的 词素  Examples: boy girl desk  kind give take  2) Bound morphemes ( 粘附词素）  本身没有完整意义，不能单独使用，必须粘附在自 由词素或其他形式上才能表示出意义的词素  Examples : anti-war Marxist unlucky  postwar movement co-existence

0.2 Words The word is composed of one or more than The word is composed of one or more than one morpheme. one morpheme. Words can be classified in two ways: Words can be classified in two ways: 1) Classification in terms of word-formation 1) Classification in terms of word-formationword-formation 2) Classification in terms of grammatical 2) Classification in terms of grammaticalgrammatical funtion funtion

a) Simple Word ( 简单词） 又叫 “ 单词素词 ” （ morpheme word), 由单一自 由词素构成，多半是一些短小的词，如： at, by, foot, take, make 等 b) Derivative （派生词） 由词根加派生词缀构成，同一词根加不同词缀 可表示不同的意义或不同的词性。如： unfair, nonsmoker, misjudge, overeat, international, belittle 等 c) Compound （合成词） 通常由两个或两个以上自由词素构成。如： deadline, handbook, driveway, toothpick, downfall 等 back a) Simple Word ( 简单词） 又叫 “ 单词素词 ” （ morpheme word), 由单一自 由词素构成，多半是一些短小的词，如： at, by, foot, take, make 等 b) Derivative （派生词） 由词根加派生词缀构成，同一词根加不同词缀 可表示不同的意义或不同的词性。如： unfair, nonsmoker, misjudge, overeat, international, belittle 等 c) Compound （合成词） 通常由两个或两个以上自由词素构成。如： deadline, handbook, driveway, toothpick, downfall 等 back back

Closed Class ( 封闭词类 ) 封闭词类指所有的功能词，包括 : 介词 (Preposition), 如： in, of, on, without 代词 (Pronoun), 如： you, he, one, which 限定词 (Determiner), 如： a, the, this 连词 (Conjunction), 如： and, or, but 助动词 (Auxiliary), 如： do ， can, may b) Open Class ( 开放词类） 开放词类指各种实义词，包括： 名词 (Noun) ， 如： man, Paris, drama 形容词 (Adjective), 如： old, big, cheap 副词 (Adverb), 如： here, there, late 主动词 (Main Verb), 如： work, give, make Closed Class ( 封闭词类 ) 封闭词类指所有的功能词，包括 : 介词 (Preposition), 如： in, of, on, without 代词 (Pronoun), 如： you, he, one, which 限定词 (Determiner), 如： a, the, this 连词 (Conjunction), 如： and, or, but 助动词 (Auxiliary), 如： do ， can, may b) Open Class ( 开放词类） 开放词类指各种实义词，包括： 名词 (Noun) ， 如： man, Paris, drama 形容词 (Adjective), 如： old, big, cheap 副词 (Adverb), 如： here, there, late 主动词 (Main Verb), 如： work, give, make

此外还有基数词 (Cardinal Numeral) ，序数词 (Ordinal Numeral) ，感叹词 (Interjection) 是 介乎 “ 封闭 ” 与 “ 开放 ” 之间的词类

03. Phrases The phrase is composed of one or more than one word. Generally, the phrase is a group of words organized in a specific way with a key word as its head. The word class of the head determiners the class of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized.

1) The noun phrase The noun phrase is a phrase with a noun as its head. The general pattern of a noun phrase is: (determiner+) (premodifier+) noun (+postmodifier) e.g. all the college students his new book on phonology the tall boy sitting in the corner the author’s new novel that will soon come out

2) The verb phrase The verb phrase is a phrase with a main verb as its head. A verb phrase can be simple or complex. A simple verb phrase is just a main verb or “modifier + main verb”. A complex verb phrase is a main verb preceded by an auxiliary (or auxiliaries) (+ modifier). e.g. She looks pale. It is getting dark. John will certainly object and so will Mary.

3) The adjective phrase The adjective phrase is a phrase with an adjective as its head. The general pattern of an adjective phrase is: (modifier+) adjective (+postmodifier/ complementation) e.g. The weather is fine today. The course is pretty difficult. You’re not careful enough.

4) The adverb phrase The adverb phrase is a phrase with an adverb as its head. The general pattern of an adverb phrase is: (modifier+) adverb (+postmodifier) e.g. He spoke loudly and clearly. Be a man. Do not act so slowly. She spoke very clearly indeed.

5) The prepositional phrase The prepositional phrase is a phrase with a preposition as its head. The general pattern of a prepositional phrase is: (modifier+) preposition + complementation e.g. We’re collecting money for the benefit of some orphans. The student consulted his adviser about the two courses.

0.4 Clause The clause is composed of one or more than one phrase. A full-fledged clause is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of “subject + predicate”. The clause is composed of one or more than one phrase. A full-fledged clause is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of “subject + predicate”.

1) Independent and dependent clauses 1) Independent and dependent clauses ① An independent clause is a clause that can stand by itself and act as a complete utterance. ① An independent clause is a clause that can stand by itself and act as a complete utterance. e.g. He knows everything about it. e.g. He knows everything about it. That hat does not fit; you may try another. That hat does not fit; you may try another. ② A dependent clause forms only part of another clause or of a phrase. ② A dependent clause forms only part of another clause or of a phrase. e.g. I don ’ t think he knows everything about it. e.g. I don ’ t think he knows everything about it. If that hat does not fit, try another. If that hat does not fit, try another.

2) Simple and complex clauses 2) Simple and complex clauses ① When a clause consists of only one construction of “ subject + predicate ”, it is a simple clause. ① When a clause consists of only one construction of “ subject + predicate ”, it is a simple clause. e.g. It is not true. e.g. It is not true. He said that it was not true. He said that it was not true. ② When a clause comprises another clause or other clauses as its element or elements, it is a complex clause. ② When a clause comprises another clause or other clauses as its element or elements, it is a complex clause. e.g. What you said is not true. e.g. What you said is not true. He complained that what you said was not He complained that what you said was not true. true.

3) Main and subordinate clauses 3) Main and subordinate clauses In a complex clause, the clause that takes another clause as its element is the main clause, while the clause that forms part of the main clause is a subordinate clause. In a complex clause, the clause that takes another clause as its element is the main clause, while the clause that forms part of the main clause is a subordinate clause. He complained that what you said was not true. He complained that what you said was not true. 从句 从句 主句 主句 从句 从句 主句 主句

4) Finite and non-finite clauses 4) Finite and non-finite clauses ① A finite clause is one with a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb or predicator. ① A finite clause is one with a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb or predicator. e.g. He complained that what he said was not e.g. He complained that what he said was not true. true. ② A non-finite clause is a clause with a non- finite verb phrase as its predicator. ② A non-finite clause is a clause with a non- finite verb phrase as its predicator. e.g. I signed the paper to get the license. e.g. I signed the paper to get the license. Can ’ t you recall telling me that story last Can ’ t you recall telling me that story last week? week?

5) Verbless clauses 5) Verbless clauses When a clause is marked by the absence of any form of verb element. It is a verbless clause. A verbless clause is just a construction of “ subject + predicate ” without any form of verb element. When a clause is marked by the absence of any form of verb element. It is a verbless clause. A verbless clause is just a construction of “ subject + predicate ” without any form of verb element. e.g. Hungry and exhausted, the climbers e.g. Hungry and exhausted, the climbers returned. returned. Christmas then only days away, the family Christmas then only days away, the family was pent up with excitement. was pent up with excitement.

0.5 Sentence The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse; it can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus, a sentence can be defined as a grammatical unit that can perform a communicative function. The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse; it can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus, a sentence can be defined as a grammatical unit that can perform a communicative function.

1) Full and minor sentences 1) Full and minor sentences ① A full sentence is a sentence with an expressed subject and predicate. ① A full sentence is a sentence with an expressed subject and predicate. e.g. I signed the paper to get the license. e.g. I signed the paper to get the license. ② A minor sentence is only a sentence fragment which in specific contexts and situation can stand by itself and perform a communicate function. ② A minor sentence is only a sentence fragment which in specific contexts and situation can stand by itself and perform a communicate function. e.g. No smoking! e.g. No smoking!

2) simple, compound, Complex and 2) simple, compound, Complex and compound-complex sentences compound-complex sentences ① A simple sentence is a sentence that comprises only one independent clause. ① A simple sentence is a sentence that comprises only one independent clause. ② Two or more coordinated independent clauses make a compound sentence ② Two or more coordinated independent clauses make a compound sentence ③ When an independent clause comprises one or more dependent clauses as its elements. This makes a complex sentence. ③ When an independent clause comprises one or more dependent clauses as its elements. This makes a complex sentence. ④ Two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one complex clause make a compound-complex sentence. ④ Two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one complex clause make a compound-complex sentence.

Assignment Exercise in the textbook