Media Theories نظريات الاعلام Effects Theories نظريات تأثير وسائل الاعلام

Elements of Mass Communication Five elements of mass communication Sender: مرسل : It may be media professional or media institution or organization which sends the information. Receiver: مستقبِل person who receives the information sent. This mass of receivers are often called mass audience الجمهور المتلقي. Message: الرسالةcontent of information sent by sender. The message is put in various forms like an interview, documentary, film, an article, feature or news story. Channel الاتصال قناة: Modern mass media like radio, television or newspapers spread the message with great speed. Feedback: التغذية الراجعة response from receiver. Mass communication will have indirect feedback.

The Communication Model Source Message Channel Receiver Feedback

Persuasion vs. Manipulation الاقناع مقابل التلاعب What is the difference between persuasion and manipulation?

Persuasion الاقناع - الاستمالة Persuasion is an attempt to influence a person’s actions through an appeal to his/her self-interest الإقناع هو محاولة للتأثير على أعمال الشخص من خلال التركيز على أن له مصلحة ذاتية A PR person must be aware of what the audience wants to know. Gained knowledge is “mutually beneficial” المعرفة المكتسبة فيها منفعة متبادلة

Manipulation التلاعب Coercion القهر The audience might not need to know the message, but they are coerced or tricked into that knowledge when there is little of no benefit to them. الجمهور قد لا يحتاج ان يعرف الرسالة ولكن يتم اكراهه أو خداعه بخصوص هذه المعرفة حتى وان كانت بلا فائدة لهم. There is manipulation of audience’s feelings, emotions, thinking into believing certain things or favouring or disfavouring other things.هناك تلاعب بعواطف الجمهور وتفكيره بدفعه تجاه تفضيل أشياء وعدم تقبل أشياء أخرى

Persuasion versus Manipulation Manipulation suggests something dishonest. Short-term gains are short-lived. Manipulation comes with a cost: credibility.

What is propaganda? “The deliberate and systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist.” (Jowett & O’Donnell, 1986). It’s the enemy that uses/makes propaganda (we say) while we provide “information,” “evidence,” “education,” “reasoned arguments” (we say)

Propaganda and the mass media Mass media—then and now—are regarded as essential to successful propaganda They’re the only channels guaranteed to reach the whole public Mass media have advantage (in free societies) of being regarded as trustworthy

Why Public Relations Is Not Propaganda Many falsely use the two terms as if they are synonyms. Propaganda is associated with manipulation. Public relations uses persuasion to satisfy the needs of all parties.

The goal of all media theories هدف نظريات الإعلام Explain relationships between media and people Individuals Societies Cultures Often, to explain media’s influence or “effects” What’s in it for us? Placing PR in context.

Timeline (highlights) 1880s-1910s (or so): mass society and mass culture theories 1920s-30s: public opinion research; propaganda theories (including “magic bullet”) 1940s-60s: “limited effects” paradigm 1960s: reactions against “limited effects” (in various directions: some moderate, some powerful)

Effects Theories نظريات تأثير وسائل الاعلام Do the media have an effect on viewers and listeners? There are several theories that support the extremes and the middle on this Yes, it impacts us No, it does not Yes and No... somewhere in between

Effects Theories Mass media/mass communications make people powerless to resist messages the media carries. وسائل الإعلام / وسائل الاتصال الجماهيري تجعل الناس عاجزين عن مقاومة الرسائل التي تحملها وسائل الإعلام. Consumers seem to be ‘drugged’ or ‘addicted’ to the media messages. يبدو المستهلكون وكأنهم مخدرون أو مدمنون على الرسائل التي تحملها وسائل الاعلام. Effects theories establish links between violence and the media, especially with the effects on the young.

Effects Theories Historical Background Frankfurt School: Marxist German intellectuals reacting against Nazi propaganda and US advertising. المدرسة الفرانكفورتية: مثقفون ألمان ماركسيون انتقدوا دور الدعاية النازية والإعلانات في الولايات المتحدة. It suggested the power of big corporations and the state to control how we think.أشارت إلى قوة تأثير الشركات الكبرى والدولة في تشكيل تفكيرنا. Rise of TV in the 50’s and 60’s – fear of danger to children ظهور التلفاز في الخمسينات والستينات أثار مخاوف من تاثيره السلبي على الأطفال.

Effects Theories Historical Background Influence of behavioural scientists (think of Pavlov’s dogs) – media may reinforce attitudes through repetition تأثرت بالعلماء السلوكيين (المثير والاستجابة الشرطية) بمعنى أن وسائل الاعلام تعزز الاتجاهات من خلال التكرار. Bobo doll experiment (1963) that pointed out that children imitate adult treatment of doll. تجربة دمية البوبو أشارت الى ان الاطفال يقلدون تعامل الكبار مع الدمى.

Moderate-Effects Theoryنظرية التأثير المعتدل Recognizes that media is not all-powerful in its influence However, under certain circumstances it can have a very strong effect تعترف أن وسائل الاعلام ليست قوية في كل نفوذها، ولكن في ظروف معينة فان لها تأثير قوي جدا 17

Limited-Effects Theory نظرية التأثير المحدود Media often does not have a direct effect on audience and decision making. وسائل الإعلام في كثير من الأحيان لا يكون لها تأثير مباشر على الجمهور واتخاذ القرارات However, it is just one of many influences, including: Opinion leaders One’s prior held beliefs Influence of family, friends, peers 18

Powerful-Effects Theory نظرية التأثير القوي Media has the potential for a huge influence on the audience Influence increases if: Audience has little or no opinion on an issue Audience has no direct experience with the issue 19

The Magic Bullet Theory WWI (1930’s) Mass Media has the power with the right message; therefore, can influence people to do most anything. Mass Media Public

Hypodermic Needle Theory or Magic Bullet Theory نظرية الابرة تحت الجلد أو الطلقة السحرية One of the earliest theories held that mass media was highly influential. It was started by the Frankfurt School, a group of German Marxists in the 1930’s. They observed how Hitler user Propaganda to influence the nation. The Communists in the Soviet Union had a similar impact. The media is like a syringe injects ideas and attitudes into people’s minds, as a doctor shoots a hypodermic needle into a patient. وسائل الإعلام هي تحقن الأفكار والمواقف في أذهان الناس، كما يحقن طبيب إبرة تحت الجلد في المريض Audiences passively receive the information transmitted via a media text, without any attempt on their part to process or challenge the information. الجمهور يتلقى بشكل سلبي المعلومات التي تنتقل من خلال وسائل الإعلام، من دون أي محاولة من جانبهم لمعالجة أو تحدي هذه المعلومات. Violence in the Media encourages viewers to imitate what they see. يتأثر الناس بمشاهد العنف ويميلون لتقليدها This theory is no longer widely held.

The Magic Bullet Theory Mass Media You

“Magic bullet” theory of propaganda Simplistic propaganda theory: media stimuli work like “magic bullets” (or hypodermic needles) people are simply “targets,” unwitting victims people are powerless to resist influence no matter who they are Media messages penetrate people’s minds and instantly and directly create associations between strong emotions and specific concepts.

magic-bullet theory External stimuli, like those in mass media, can condition anyone to behave in whatever way a master propagandist wants Built on stimulus-response (behaviorist) model No matter what your level of education or social status magic bullets (media messages) penetrate your defenses and transform your thoughts/actions

Example Origin: A British recruitment poster which would have come out before conscription was introduced in January 1916. Motive: To encourage men in Britain to enlist in the New Armies. Audience: Men who are eligible to enlist and who are in the right age group. Content: The symbol - John Bull represents the British people, note the Union Jack waistcoat. Personal appeal - Use of Question -'Who's Absent? Is it You?‘ The finger pointing at the reader -'You'. Soldiers waiting in the background for 'your' response.

Two-Step Flow Theory نظرية التدفق على مرحلتين Media messages analyzed, interpreted and passed on by opinion leaders first. الرسالة الاعلامية يتم تحليلها وتفسيرها وتمريرها من قبل قادة الرأي أولا Ideas flow from mass media to opinion leaders and from them to the less active sections of the population تتدفق الأفكار من وسائل الاعلام الى قادة الرأي ومن ثم الى الفئات الاخرى في المجتمع. The mass public gets information via these opinion leaders: Opinions are formed Perceptions are created Knowledge is gained (or repressed)

Two-Step Theory End of WWII (late 1940’s): This theory recognizes that opinion leaders influence the rest of society Mass Media Opinion Leaders Public

Opinion Leaders قادة الرأي Opinion leaders serve as powerful channels in the flow of information قادة الرأي يكونون بمثابة قنوات قوية لتدفق المعلومات Opinion leaders may have more direct access to the media and/or a better media literacy than the masses. يستطيع قادة الرأي الوصول إلى وسائل الاعلام بشكل مباشر ولديهم معرفة بكيفية التعامل مع وسائل الاعلام اكثر من الجمهور. They may include: Political leaders Experts Celebrities Community or religious leaders Writers Media analysts Journalists

Example Audience knows that a Hollywood famous actor uses a special type of mobile phone. To some of the public, this communicates that this mobile is the one to “buy” الجمهور يعرف أن نجم هوليوود شهير يستخدم نوع معين من الهاتف المحمول. بالتالي عند البعض هذا يعني ان هذا الهاتف جدير بالشراء.

Decision-making Process عملية اتخاذ القرار Exists on a continuum موجودة على شكل سلم متدرج Depends on: The information itself Personal psyche or disposition Some key factors: Socio-economic status (class) Religion Gender Intra-familial status

Uses and Gratifications نظرية الاستخدامات والاشباعات “what audiences do with the media”

Uses & Gratifications Theory نظرية الاستخدامات والاشباعات It attempts to answer the question: What do people do with the media? تحاول أن تجيب عن السؤال: ماذا يفعل الناس مع وسائل الاعلام؟ The media have a limited effect on their audiences because audiences are able to exercise control over their media Active use of media by audience members to seek gratification of a variety of needs. هناك استخدام نشط لوسائل الإعلام من قبل أفراد الجمهور للحصول على الإشباع في مجموعة متنوعة من الاحتياجات The needs most commonly identified are: Information المعلومات (i.e. monitoring what's going on in the world) integration and social interactionالاندماج والتفاعل الاجتماعي (we use the media to find out more about the circumstances of other people perhaps through empathy or sympathy) personal identity الهوية الشخصية(we may watch television for models for our behaviour. For instance - we may identify with film characters or their situations) Diversion تحويل الانظار (i.e. entertainment and escapism الترفيه والهروب).

Uses & Gratifications Theory There are 4 basic assumptions: هناك افتراضات أربعة People are active & choose what they want to watch & why. هناك دور فاعل للناس ويختارون ما يشاهدون ولماذا The media compete with other sources for need gratifications. تتنافس وسائل الاعلام مع مصادر أخرى لإشباع الحاجات. People are aware of their media use, interests and motives. الناس على وعي باستخدامهم لوسائل الاعلام ومصالحهم ودوافعهم. 3.1 People choose media that suit them 3.2 People choose media that fulfill needs, are useful, and are pleasurable to them 4. Value judgments of the media can only be assessed by the audience. يقوم الجمهور فقط بتقييم وسائل الاعلام See notes.

Uses and Gratifications Theory Message is blocked by the receiver as they now have the power to pick and choose their communication source يقوم المتلقي بصد الرسالة حيث لديه القوة ليختار مصدر الاتصال. Mass Media Public

Uses and Gratifications Theory Mass Media Message received تلقي الرسالة Public

Uses and Gratifications Theory Mass Media Interactive Public

Uses and Gratifications Theory Mass Media Self-selected messagesرسائل يختارها المتلقي بذاته Public

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Physiological/ Survival (lowest): The most basic needs that must be fulfilled before all others… food, water, rest and sex. Safety: Personal security, comfort and peace, and orderly surroundings Love & Acceptance: A sense of belonging, love and affection. Self-esteem: Seeking recognition, prestige, leadership opportunities and success. Self-actualization: (highest) To seek a goal just for the sense of accomplishment

The Agenda-Setting Theory نظرية ترتيب الأولويات Based on the principle that the mass media does not tell the people what to think, but what to think about. The challenge: Who tells the media what to think about? Mass Media It’s the theory that an issue can dominate the media for several weeks only to be replaced by another issue. For example when Elizabeth Smart was abducted, the family hired a public relations firm to keep Elizabeth in the media and in the public eye. For most, her disappearance would have been replaced by some other news. Public

Agenda Setting Theory نظرية ترتيب الاولويات The theory was developed by Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw in the late 1960s. McCombs and Shaw argued that the “Mass media have the ability to transfer the salience of items on their news agendas to the public agenda.” As they put it : “We judge as important what the media judge as important.” جادل مكومس وشو بأن "وسائل الإعلام لديها القدرة على نقل البنود البارزة المدرجة على جداول وسائل الاعلام على جدول أعمال الجمهور" كما قالوا "نحن نحكم على أهمية شيء بما تحكم عليه وسائل الاعلام انه مهم."

Agenda Setting Political scientist Bernard Cohen observed “The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling them what to think about.” (1963) عالم السياسة برنارد كوهين لاحظ أن « الصحافة ربما لا تنجح في معظم الوقت في أن تخبر الناس كيف يفكرون، ولكنها تنجح بشكل كبير في أن تقول لهم عن ماذا يفكرون “ “Media agenda” determines the “public agenda” What’s covered—and emphasized—in news becomes what people say is important to them

One Study on Agenda Setting McCombs and Shaw’s study defined media agenda by studying coverage of issues in nine print and broadcast sources. They used position and length of story as main criteria of prominence in print media and placement in first three stories or a discussion over 45 seconds for broadcast

Agenda setting Foreign policy Law and Order Fiscal Policy Issues prominent in the media were: Foreign policy Law and Order Fiscal Policy Public Welfare Civil Rights

Agenda Setting To determine public’s agenda they asked voters to identify what they considered to be the top issues in the 1968 campaign between Nixon and Humphrey. They compared aggregate data from voters with media content and found that the issues and the ranking of the issues was nearly identical on both lists.

Agenda Setting Theory The pattern of news coverage of a particular topic helps to determine what the public perceives as important نمط التغطية الإعلامية لموضوع معين يساعد على تحديد ما هو المهم للجمهور In other words, the media sets the agenda وبعبارة أخرى ، فإن وسائل الإعلام تضع جدول الأعمال

Agenda Setting Who is most likely to be affected by the agenda-setting function of the media ? أي فئة من الجمهور تكون أكثر تأثراً بوظيفة ترتيب الأولويات لوسائل الاعلام؟

Agenda Setting McCombs and Shaw have argued that the people who have a willingness to let the media shape their thinking. من لديهم استعداد لأن تشكل وسائل الاعلام تفكيرهم A high need for orientation or index of curiosity stemming from high relevance and uncertainty. ولديهم حاجة كبيرة للتوجيه أو مؤشر فضول ناجم عن اهتمام كبير بالموضوع أو عدم يقين تجاهه.

Criticism of original AS theory How do you know the relationship is causal in THIS direction? Media agenda voters’ agenda Isn’t it possible that it works the other way? Voters’ agenda media agenda (That is, the media give their audiences what they want)

What other questions arise? Who sets the agenda for the media? من يرتب الأولويات بالنسبة للاعلام؟ i.e., how do the media determine what to cover?كيف تقرر وسائل الاعلام أية موضوعات تتناول؟ What do you think? What/who determines what’s deemed “newsworthy”? من يحدد الموضوع الجدير أن يتصدر الأخبار؟

The Agenda-Setting Theory نظرية ترتيب الأولويات Based on the principle that the mass media does not tell the people what to think, but what to think about. The challenge: Who tells the media what to think about? Mass Media It’s the theory that an issue can dominate the media for several weeks only to be replaced by another issue. For example when Elizabeth Smart was abducted, the family hired a public relations firm to keep Elizabeth in the media and in the public eye. For most, her disappearance would have been replaced by some other news. Public

1990s: challenge to that idea! New claim: media do also tell us what to think!!! طرح جديد: وسائل الاعلام أيضاً تقول لنا كيف نفكر!!! i.e., which attitudes/opinions to hold about people, events, ideas in the news. بمعنى أنها تقول لنا ما هي الاتجاهات والآراء والأفكار التي يجب أن نحملها عن الناس والأحداث والأفكار في الأخبار.

Updating the Agenda Setting “The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about” (Cohen, 1963). “The media may not only tell us what to think about, they may also tell us how and what to think about it, and perhaps even what to do about it” (McCombs, 1997)