EU responses to international terrorism

Definition of terrorism Schmit & Jongman: ‘an anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent action, employed by (semi-)clandestine individuals, groups or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal or political reasons, whereby- in contrast to assassination- the direct targets of violence are not the main targets […] (but) serve as message generators, Differences with insurgency or warfare: its psychological impact (anxiety and fear) on society is far greater than its material consequences (physical harm to persons and property) Transnational character of terrorism Different constituencies and motivations

Social construction of threat perception Various interpretations of threats Causes and motivations Responses MSs’ perceptions of the threat: different experiences of the MSs, different political systems and cultures, Muslim population in the EU countries ESS

Early stages of EC counter- terrorism cooperation The TREVI group set up in 1975 Comprised of interior and justice ministers as well as police chiefs Operation: a telex system for circulating among interior ministers, police forces and security services (separate from the EPC, the foreign ministers, the Commission, and the Council); useful operational coordination in terms of contacts, exchange of information, adoption of a more interoperable communication techniques) Met biannually TREVI did not arrive at consensus on a common definition of terrorism, improved extradition procedure, refugee or asylum policies Explanations: difference in threat perception and different judicial systems

Post 9/11 responses The European Council, ‘Action Plan on Combating Terrorism’, November 2001: calls for legislation (under the Community method) and voluntary adaptation through peer reviews and identification of best practices; many of these measures were not exclusively or primarily targeted at terrorist activities; they have led to changes across policy areas: intelligence, law enforcement, border control, capital control and foreign policy A counter-terrorism strategy, December adopted and 33 proposed pieces of legislation as well as 22 Commission’s Communications and 21 Reports under the heading of the fight against terrorism The Office of a EU’s counter-terrorism coordinator- established in 2004; largely symbolic powers; no resources and competences (to propose legislation or share Council’s meetings) The European Police Office (Europol) – re-establishment of Joint Investigative teams and reporting duties on terrorist activities The Situation Center (SitCen)- increased role in assessing terrorist-related intelligence; limited staff and no explicit legal mandate

Post 9/11 responses Policy priorities and objectives: -No coherent and ranked set of objectives, the level of action and the method of coordination -to facilitate policing and intelligence sharing; an overwhelming majority of measures were not exclusively focused on terrorism and aimed at combating crime (European Arrest Warrant and the Evidence Warrant) Governing models; community and intergovernmental methods; growth of horizontal networks Accountability, legitimacy and performance problems Very little done on tackling the root causes of terrorism Erosion of democratic, legal and social norms