+ Indian Removal The Policies of the Presidents

+ George Washington He believed Native Americans were a race of people who would either die out or assimilate into white culture Northwest Ordinance in provided for the administration of the northwestern portion of the former colonies Congress thought Indian presence in this area was temporary and made it clear that the United States intended to settle the area The Act did state that the federal government could not invade or disturb Indian nations unless there was a "just" war.

+ Washington’s presidency He advocated purchasing the land from the Native Americans rather than forcing them out of the area Indian policy was seen as foreign affairs and each tribe was considered a foreign nation

+ Thomas Jefferson Believed Native Americans to be capable of being the intellectual equal of whites if they were given an education Also believed that relocation was necessary for their own protection

+ James Monroe “The removal of the tribes from the territory which they now inhabit... would not only shield them from impending ruin, but promote their welfare and happiness. Experience has clearly demonstrated that in their present state it is impossible to incorporate them in such masses…into our system. It has also demonstrated …that without a timely anticipation of and provision against the dangers to which they are exposed, …their degradation and extermination will be inevitable."

+ Monroe’s presidency He did not believe that civilization could be done in the homelands of Native Americans He did not want to forcefully move the Indian tribes westward, he hoped to persuade them with land The tribes in the east would give up portions of their lands in return for larger lands in the west

+ Removal by Enticement First tried on the Cherokees Not entirely successful because of land hungry whites in the Territory of Arkansas Treaty of white persons were to be removed from the new Cherokee Nation and it was to compensate Native Americans for improvements made to the lands (like buildings and roads or farms) and the U.S. would pay the cost of removal and for food and clothing for one year

+ More enticements- Choctaws Leaders at the Treaty of Doak’s Stand agreed to give up 5 million acres of their Mississippi lands for 13 million acres in present day Oklahoma and Arkansas This treaty also funded education and the lighthorse (mounted police force) and promised assistance to Choctaws who emigrated to the new lands

+ Creeks Had been opposed to all removal efforts In 1824 the National Council of the Creek confederation imposed the death penalty on anyone who signed away tribal lands without council approval

+ Upper and Lower Creeks Upper Led by Opothleyaholo, a traditionalist who didn’t want to exchange lands in Georgia for lands in Oklahoma Lower Led by William McIntosh, a progressive who signed a treaty ceding lands He believed it was the only way to save the tribe His house was set on fire and he was shot when trying to get out

+ John Quincy Adams He hears about the execution of William McIntosh and fears a civil war amongst the Creeks He invites a delegation to Washington D.C. to renegotiate The National Council approves of the delegation and grants them permission to cede the land if necessary They decide to move and receive payment

+ Andrew Jackson By 1830, only about 6,000 members of the Five Tribes had taken the government up on its enticement offers Jackson and many white settlers didn’t think that was good enough

+ Martin Van Buren Van Buren continued with Jackson’s Indian policies and under his presidency, the government oversaw the removal of the Cherokee westward He had many critics who believed removal was inhumane and the wars with the Seminole

+ Terms Emigrate- to move out of one’s home country or region Allotment- an assignment of a piece of land to an individual Annuity- yearly payment Subsistence- basics needed for survival, such as food and clothing

+ Choctaw Removal The first to leave the east Choctaws had assimilated by adopting Christianity, centralizing their government and opening schools Their tribal government was abolished The Choctaw leaders signed a removal treaty at Dancing Rabbit Creek—they received no money for their lands but were promised money for improvements and travel as well as support for education in the west

+ Chickasaw Removal With the Treaty of Pontotoc, the Chickasaw would leave their lands in the east for lands in the west—they were not paid They made their way to Oklahoma and found a home amongst the Choctaw tribe (they had to pay the Choctaw for full citizenship)

+ Creek Removal The Treaty of Washington dissolved the Creek Nation in Alabama and gave members two options: they could move or they could receive an allotment of land and live under state laws Many chose to stay and wound up losing their lands Chief Eneah Emathla led a protest which turned into a short war resulting in President Jackson sending in federal troops The rebels surrendered quickly and were placed in chains and were sent to Oklahoma Those who didn’t surrender joined the Seminole

+ Seminole Removal Treaty of Payne’s Landing- the Seminole would move to Oklahoma once they were able to find a suitable home and they would be paid Some hand no intentions of leaving and when Osceola and his followers killed a signer of the treaty and ambushed a U.S. Army patrol it sparked a Seminole war Many were forced to move at a later time

+ Cherokee Removal John Ross, Major Ridge, and Charles Hicks had hoped their attempts at assimilation would help them avoid relocation Worcester v. Georgia After the refusal by Jackson to enforce the ruling, Georgia began giving away Cherokee lands by lottery

+ Treaty of New Echota The Cherokee agreed to sell their eastern lands for $5 M and move to Oklahoma to share lands with the Western Cherokee—two year time limit to leave John Ross and his traditionalist followers considered those who signed the treaty traitors Ross still refused to go and thousands of Cherokee were rounded up and put in stockades at the order of President Van Buren

+ What happened when they got here? The Plains tribes didn’t like having thousands of new neighbors The boundaries of tribes weren’t mapped out and were a little blurry Osage didn’t want to give up their villages on the Verdigris River

+ Stokes Commission Sent out by President Jackson to settle any problems in Indian Territory Many of the disputes they had to resolve involved overlapping borders of domains promised in different treaties to different tribes