Three Phases of CALL Though CALL has developed gradually over the last 30 years, this development can be categorized in terms of three somewhat distinct phases:  behavioristic CALL  communicative CALL  integrative CALL.

Behavioristic CALL  The first phase of CALL, conceived in the 1950s and implemented in the 1960s and '70s, was based on the then-dominant behaviorist theories of learning. Programs of this phase entailed repetitive language drills and can be referred to as "drill and practice" (or, more pejoratively, as "drill and kill").  Drill and practice courseware is based on the model of computer as tutor.In other words the computer serves as a vehicle for delivering instructional materials to the student. The rationale behind drill and practice was not totally spurious, which explains in part the fact that CALL drills are still used today. Briefly put, that rationale is as follows:  Repeated exposure to the same material is beneficial or even essential to learning

 A computer is ideal for carrying out repeated drills, since the machine does not get bored with presenting the same material and since it can provide immediate non-judgmental feedback  A computer can present such material on an individualized basis, allowing students to proceed at their own pace and freeing up class time for other activities  Based on these notions, a number of CALL tutoring systems were developed for the mainframe computers which were used at that time. One of the most sophisticated of these was the PLATO system, which ran on its own special PLATO hardware, including central computers and terminals. The PLATO system included vocabulary drills, brief grammar explanations and drills, and translations tests at various intervals.

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, behavioristic CALL was undermined by two important factors. First, behavioristic approaches to language learning had been rejected at both the theoretical and the pedagogical level. Secondly, the introduction of the microcomputer allowed a whole new range of possibilities. The stage was set for a new phase of CALL.

Communicative CALL The second phase of CALL was based on the communicative approach to teaching which became prominent in the 1970s and 80s. Proponents of this approach felt that the drill and practice programs of the previous decade did not allow enough authentic communication to be of much value. communicative CALL:  focuses more on using forms rather than on the forms themselves;  teaches grammar implicitly rather than explicitly;  allows and encourages students to generate original utterances rather than just manipulate prefabricated language;

 does not judge and evaluate everything the students nor reward them with congratulatory messages, lights, or bells;  avoids telling students they are wrong and is flexible to a variety of student responses;  uses the target language exclusively and creates an environment in which using the target language feels natural, both on and off the screen; and  will never try to do anything that a book can do just as well.

 critics of behavioristic CALL contend that all CALL courseware and activities should build on intrinsic motivation and should foster interactivity - both learner- computer and learner-learner.  Several types of CALL programs were developed and used during this the phase of communicative CALL. First, there were a variety of programs to provide skill practice, but in a non-drill format. Examples of these types of programs include courseware for paced reading, text reconstruction, and language games.  In these programs, like the drill and practice programs mentioned above, the computer remains the "knower-of- the-right-answer" thus this represents an extension of the computer as tutor model. But - in contrast to the drill and practice programs - the process of finding the right answer involves a fair amount of student choice, control, and interaction.

 In addition to computer as tutor, another CALL model used for communicative activities involves the computer as stimulus.  In this case, the purpose of the CALL activity is not so much to have students discover the right answer, but rather to stimulate students' discussion, writing, or critical thinking. Software used for these purposes include a wide variety of programs which may not have been specifically designed for language learners, programs such as Sim City, Sleuth, or Where in the World is San Diego.  The third model of computers in communicative CALL involves the computer as tool. In this role, the programs do not necessarily provide any language material at all, but rather empower the learner to use or understand language. Examples of computer as tool include word processors, spelling and grammar checkers, desk-top publishing programs, and concordancers.

 Of course the distinction between these models is not absolute. A skill practice program can be used as a conversational stimulus, as can a paragraph written by a student on a word processor. Likewise, there are a number of drill and practice programs which could be used in a more communicative fashion - if, for example, students were assigned to work in pairs or small groups and then compare and discuss their answers (or, students can even discuss what inadequacies they found in the computer program) In other words, the dividing line between behavioristic and communicative CALL does involves not only which software is used, but also how the software is put to use by the teacher and students.

 On the face of things communicative CALL seems like a significant advance over its predecessor. But by the end of the 1980s, many educators felt that CALL was still failing to live up to its potential (Critics pointed out that the computer was being used in an ad hoc and disconnected fashion and thus "finds itself making a greater contribution to marginal rather than to central elements" of the language teaching process.

 These critiques of CALL dovetailed with broader reassessments of the communicative approach to language teaching. No longer satisfied with teaching compartmentalized skills or structures (even if taught in a communicative manner), a number of educators were seeking ways to teach in a more integrative manner, for example using task- or project-based approaches. The challenge for advocates of CALL was to develop models which could help integrate the various aspects of the language learning process. Fortunately, advances in computer technology were providing the opportunities to do just that.

Steps toward Integrative CALL: Multimedia  Integrative approaches to CALL are based on two important technological developments of the last decade - multimedia computers and the Internet.  Multimedia technology - exemplified today by the CD-ROM - allows a variety of media (text, graphics, sound, animation, and video) to be accessed on a single machine. What makes multimedia even more powerful is that it also entails hypermedia. That means that the multimedia resources are all linked together and that learners can navigate their own path simply by pointing and clicking a mouse.

 Hypermedia provides a number of advantages for language learning.  First of all, a more authentic learning environment is created, since listening is combined with seeing, just like in the real world.  Secondly, skills are easily integrated, since the variety of media make it natural to combine reading, writing, speaking and listening in a single activity.  Third, students have great control over their learning, since they can not only go at their own pace but even on their own individual path, going forward and backwards to different parts of the program, honing in on particular aspects and skipping other aspects altogether.

 Finally, a major advantage of hypermedia is that it facilitates a principle focus on the content, without sacrificing a secondary focus on language form or learning strategies. For example, while the main lesson is in the foreground, students can have access to a variety of background links which will allow them rapid access to grammatical explanations or exercises, vocabulary glosses, pronunciation information, or questions or prompts which encourage them to adopt an appropriate learning strategy.

Computer Assisted Language Learning: an Introduction by Mark WarschauerMark Warschauer Please cite as: Warschauer M. (1996) "Computer Assisted Language Learning: an Introduction". In Fotos S. (ed.) Multimedia language teaching, Tokyo: Logos International: 3-20.