Chapter 8: Thinking Starting on p. 344 Guest Lecturer: Leah Shapira, M.A. Music: “Imagine” John Lennon “Think Like A Man” Orianthi

Thinking: Agenda 1. The Cognitive Revolution 2. Reasoning: a) deductive b) inductive 3. Problem Solving: a) approaches b) barriers 4. Judgments & Decision Making Problems (a-f) 5. Common Cognitive Distortions 6. Thinking Critically Pointers

1.The Cognitive Revolution “I think therefore I am…” Descartes How do we know what we know? Authority Reason: Considered by Renaissance scholars to be the most reliable source of knowledge Observation: Basis for empirical knowledge Cognitive Psychologists: Study reasoning, judgments, decision making, and problem solving

2. Reasoning a) Deductive: Drawing a conclusion that follows logically from two or more statements or premises Note: **If one of the premises is false, then conclusion must be false Example: Premise 1: All human beings have cognitions Premise 2: All cognitions are intelligent Conclusion: All human beings have intelligent cognitions…. Valid but false conclusion

2. a) Deductive Reasoning (cont’d) Invalid Conclusions: Conclusions must follow logically from 2 or more premises to be valid Example: Premise 1: Some A’s are B’s Premise 2: Some B’s are C’s Conclusion: Some A’s are C’s? OR Premise 1: Some women are intelligent beings Premise 2: Some intelligent beings are men Conclusion: Some women are men? A’sB’sC’s

2. a) Deductive Reasoning (cont’d) Belief Bias Effect: We tend to judge as true those conclusions with which we agree, and as untrue those with which we disagree

2. a) Confirmation bias: p. 362

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2. b) Inductive Reasoning Problem solver goes from the particular to the general Typical in process in science Base a hypothesis on limited evidence, and test it against other evidence Example: Problems of inducing structure (p. 344): Can you supply missing number? ___ __ 21 Analogies: Carpenter: House Author:_____ Star: Constellation Room:______

3. Problem Solving Thinking directed toward solving a specific problem. Approaches: Clarify! What is initial state? What is goal state? Means-end analysis: specify subproblems and subgoals to move from initial state to goal b) Barriers: p Functional Fixedness Mental Sets: Can help or hinder E.g. O-T-T- __ -__ -__ J- F- M- A- __ - __ - __ Stress: leads to fixation e.g. soldiers in war action

4. Judgments & Decision Making Judgments: Processes by which we form opinions, reach conclusions, make evaluations of people and events Problems: a) Overconfidence effect p. 342 b) Availability Heuristic p. 337 Basing a probability on the ease with which an example comes to mind E.g. Which is the most frequent cause of death?  1) Homicides vs diabetes  2) Leukemia vs drowning  3) Earthquakes vs asthma c) Representativeness Heuristic: Basing a probability on the similarity with a prototype

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4. Heuristics cont’d c) Representativeness Heuristic (con’d): E.g. You hear about a person who is short, slim, and likes to read poetry. Is this person more likely to be a Literature Professor, or a truck driver? d) Conjunction Fallacy: ( p. 338 ) E.g. Bill is 34 years old, intelligent, unimaginative, compulsive, and somewhat boring. Which is more likely to be true? Bill plays jazz as a hobby OR Bill is an accountant who plays jazz as a hobby Jazz as hobby Accountants

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4. Judgments & Decision Making (cont’d) e) Framing: (p. 362) Decisions are heavily influenced by the way in which a question is asked E.g. Will you undergo a particular surgery if: a) 90% chance of recovery b) 10% chance of death f) Alternative Outcomes Effect Perceived likelihood of a certain outcome is influenced by the distribution of alternative outcomes Another example of “bounded rationality” People deviate in predictable ways from optimal decision making

5. Common Cognitive Distortions Arbitrary Inference: Drawing unfavorable conclusions about oneself without evidence (e.g. m ind-reading/ fortune-telling) Magnification and minimization: Dwelling on the negative and discounting the positive Overgeneralization: Viewing a negative event as a never-ending pattern of defeat Reasoning from how you feel: E.g. “I feel like an idiot… Therefore, I must be one.” Personalization: Taking blame for events that are unintended or beyond one’s control

6. Thinking Critically Critical Thinking: Ability to make objective judgments on the basis of well- supported reasons and evidence Rather than basing your judgment on emotion or anecdotal evidence To improve: Remember common pitfalls Define your terms concretely Examine the evidence  Be aware of your biases Avoid emotional reasoning Avoid simplistic explanations Tolerate uncertainty  Form convictions with care, and carry them lightly!

Wishing You: