Chapter 8 Community Ecology: Structure, Species Interactions, Succession, and Sustainability Miller – Living in the Environment 13 th Edition

Predator Tactics Pursuit Cheetah Eagle Wolves Ambush Preying Mantis Snowy Owls Humans

Prey Tactics Run, swim, or fly fast Highly developed sense of sight or smell Protective shells Thick bark Spines or thorns Chemical defenses Camouflage Warning coloration Mimicry Behavioral strategies

Span worm Bombardier beetle Viceroy butterfly Mimics monarch butterfly Foul-tasting monarch butterfly Poison dart frog When touched, the snake caterpillar changes shape to look like the head of a snake Wandering leaf insect Hind wings of io Moth resemble eyes of a much larger animal

(a) Span worm

(b) Wandering leaf insect

(c) Bombardier beetle

(d) Foul-tasting monarch butterfly

(e) Poison dart frog

(f) Viceroy butterfly mimics monarch butterfly

(g) Hind wings of Io moth resemble eyes of a much larger animal.

(h) When touched, snake caterpillar changes shape to look like head of snake.

Symbiotic Species Interactions Symbiosis – relationship in which species live together in an intimate association. Parasitism Mutualism Commensalism

Parasitism One species (parasite) feeds on part of another organism (host) by living on or in the host. Smaller than the host Remains closely associated with host and may weaken host over time Rarely kills its host

Mutualism Two species interact in ways that benefit both Nutritional mutualism Pollination, lichens, rhizobium, coral, bacteria Nutrition and protection Birds and large animals, clownfish and anemones, mycorrihizae and plants

Figure 8-12 Page 179 Oxpeckers and black rhinocerosClown fish and sea anemone Lack of mycorrhizae fungi on juniper seedlings in normal soil Mycorrhizae fungi on juniper seedlings in sterilized soil

(a) Oxpeckers and black rhinoceros

(b) Clownfish and sea anemone

(c) Mycorrhizal fungi on juniper seedlings in normal soil

(d) Lack of mycorrhizal fungi on juniper seedlings in sterilized soil

Commensalism symbiotic relationship that benefits one species but neither harms nor helps the other species

Ecological Succession - the gradual change in species composition in a given area Primary Succession – gradual establishment of biotic communities on nearly lifeless ground Secondary Succession – reestablishment of biotic communities in an area where some type of biotic community is already present

Small herbs and shrubs Heath mat Jack pine, black spruce, and aspen Balsam fir, paper birch, and white spruce climax community Time Exposed rocks Lichens and mosses Primary Ecological Succession Pioneer species Early successional Mid- successional Late Successional or Climax Community

Time Annual weeds Perennial weeds and grasses Shrubs Young pine forest Mature oak-hickory forest Secondary Ecological Succession

Midsuccessional Species Elk Moose Deer Ruffled grouse Snowshoe hare Bluebird Late Successional Species Turkey Martin Hammond’s flycatcher Gray squirrel Wilderness Species Grizzly bear Wolf Caribou Bighorn sheep California condor Great horned owl Early Successional Species Rabbit Quail Ringneck pheasant Dove Bobolink Pocket gopher Ecological succession © 2004 Brooks/Cole – Thomson Learning Ecological Succession of Wildlife Species

Changes Affecting Ecosystems Catastrophic Natural Drought Flood Fire Volcanic eruption Earthquake Hurricane Landslide Disease Human-caused Deforestation Overgrazing Plowing Erosion Pesticide application Fire Mining Urbanization Water and air pollution Loss and degradation of wildlife habitat Gradual Natural Climate change Immigration Adaptation and evolution Ecological succession Disease Human-caused Salinization Soil compaction Groundwater depletion Water and air pollution Loss and degradation of wildlife habitat Introduction of nonnative species Overhunting and overfishing Toxic contamination Urbanization Excessive tourism

Predictability and the Balance of Nature Old Concept Succession Climax Community New Concept Biotic change Mature community or vegetative patches

1000 Percentage disturbance Species diversity Intermediate disturbance hypothesis

Stability – the ability of living systems to withstand or recover from externally imposed changes or stresses. Inertia – ability to resist being disturbed Constancy – keep numbers within limits Resilience – ability to bounce back

Precautionary Principle When evidence indicates an activity can harm human health or the environment, we should take precautionary measures to prevent harm even if some of the cause-and-effect relationships have not been fully established scientifically.

Grizzly bear NORTH AMERICA Spotted owl Black- footed ferret Kemp’s ridley turtle California condor Golden toad Columbia has lost one-third of its forest Black lion tamarin SOUTH AMERICA More than 60% of the Pacific Northwest coastal forest has been cut down 40% of North America’s range and cropland has lost productivity Hawaiian monk seal Half of the forest in Honduras and Nicaragua has disappeared Mangroves cleared in Equador for shrimp ponds Southern Chile’s rain forest is threatened Little of Brazil’s Atlantic forest remains Every year 14,000 square kilometers of rain forest is destroyed in the Amazon Basin Coral reef destruction Much of Everglades National Park has dried out and lost 90% of its wading birds ATLANTIC OCEAN PACIFIC OCEAN Manatee Chesapeake Bay is overfished and polluted Fish catch in the north-west Atlantic has fallen 42% since its peak in 1973 Humpback whale St. Lawrence beluga whale Eastern cougar Florida panther Environmental degradation Vanishing biodiversity Endangered species

EUROPE Mediterranean Liberia AFRICA Imperial eagle 640,000 square kilometers south of the Sahara have turned to desert since 1940 Mali Burkina Faso Sierra Leone Togo Sao Tome 68% of the Congo’s rain forest is slated for cleaning Fish catches in Southeast Atlantic have dropped by more than 50% since 1973 Black rhinoceros Zambia Angola Congo Rwanda Burundi Uganda Somalia Nigeria Chad Niger Benin Golden tamarin Ethiopia Eritrea Madagascar has lost 66% of its tropical forest Aye-aye Yemen Oman Saudi Arabia Poland is one of the world’s most polluted countries Many parts of former Soviet Union are polluted with industrial and radio- active waste Area of Aral Sea has Shrunk 46% Central Asia from the Middle East to China has lost 72% of range and cropland ASIA Asian elephant India and Sri Lanka have almost no rain forest left In peninsular Malaysia almost all forests have been cut INDIAN OCEAN Indonesia’s coral reefs are threatened and mangrove forests have been cut in half Giant panda Kouprey Queen Alexandra’s Birdwing butterfly Nail-tailed wallaby AUSTALIA Much of Australia’s range and cropland have turned to desert 90% of the coral reefs are threatened in the Philippines. All virgin forest will be gone by 2010 Deforestation in the Himalaya causes flooding in Bangladesh Japanese timber imports are responsible for much of the world’s tropical deforestation Blue whale ANTARCTICA A thinning of the ozone layer occurs over Antarctica during summer Snow leopard 6.0 or more children per woman