SUB-ATOMIC PHYSICS STANDARD MODEL Matter is composed of objects even smaller than the atom. These “particles” have been detected in “atom smashers” where atom are made to collide at speeds close to the speed of light.

STANDARD MODEL FERMIONS n/2 spin BOSONS integer spin QUARKS LEPTONS UPCHARM TOP PHOTON e/m force DOWN STRANGEBOTTOM Z-BOSON weak force W-BOSON weak force TAU NEUTRINO MUON NEUTRINO ELECTRON NEUTRINO ELECTRON MUONTAU GLUON strong force HIGGS particle source of all mass

NUCLEUS THE NUCLEUS IS COMPOSED OF PROTONS AND NEUTRONS (fermions) PROTONS ARE MADE OF 2 UP QUARKS AND 1 DOWN QUARK CHARGE +1 [2x +2/3 AND -1/3] SPIN 3/2 NEUTRONS ARE MADE OF 1 UP QUARK AND 2 DOWN QUARKS CHARGE 0 [+2/3 AND 2x -1/3] spin 3/2

ANTI-MATTER For every particle there is an anti-particle with the same mass and opposite charge. (quarks and anti- quarks, electrons and positrons, etc.) When they meet they annihilate each other with a large burst of energy in the form of photons. This forms the CBR. 90% of all photons in the universe. As the Big Bang cooled and expanded, particles and anti-particles were created from the energy. These annihilated each other. Particles outnumbered antiparticles by one part in a billion, so normal matter still exists.

Super-symmetry A recent theory proposes that for every sub-atomic fermion particle, there is a matching “Sparticle” which is a boson. And for every boson there is an s-fermion. Thus there are selectrons, sneutrinos, etc. This simplifies the math and allows for new sources of mass in the universe, perhaps enough to explain the missing mass.

STRING THEORY Elementary particles are not points but minute vibrating strings ~ m. These vibrate at a base frequency and at higher harmonics. Different particles correspond to different frequencies. This theory needs 6 extra space dimensions which are curled up infinitesimally small. String Theory reconciles general relativity with quantum theory. It also generates a new boson with zero mass and two units of spin called the Graviton.

M-THEORY “Branes” float in the 11th dimension, which is gravity’s true habitat. They rarely visit our dimensions and this is why gravity is so weak. True gravity may be strong if we could measure it at small enough distances (Fermis). String Theory math has an infinite number of solutions, only one of which describes our universe. Are there an infinite number of other universes?

INFLATION The observed nature of the post-Big Bang universe, suggests that the universe grew from the size of a sub-atomic particle to the size of a grapefruit ( a fold increase in size), in just seconds. Gravity was probably acting as a repulsive force at these small dimensions. Minute measure fluctuations in the CBR validate the predictions of the inflation theory.

J B S HALDANE “My own suspicion is that the universe is not only queerer than we suppose, but queerer than we can suppose.”

BALONEY DETECTION 1. How reliable is the source? 2. Does the source have a track-record? 3. Have the claims been independently verified? 4. Do the claims fit into known science? 5. Has there been serious skeptical analysis. 6. Does the preponderance of evidence agree? 7. Is the claim using the rules of reason and tools of research? 8. Is it explaining of merely denying? 9. Is the new better than the old? 10. Does the claimant have a personal bias?