Gender Structures in Human History Origins - Early Civilizations

The Paleolithic (Early Stone Age) Period w There is little evidence of social structure in remains; modern examples of foragers help form understanding of early gender structures. w Most scholars believe women were not subordinate in Paleolithic past - societies were egalitarian: both men and women made tools and contributed to food supply.

Neolithic Period w Because most foraging societies had a division of labor by sex, and women were primarily responsible for gathering plant products, it is likely that women were those who first intentionally planted seeds. w Early horticulture was controlled by women, though divisions of what was women’s and men’s work were strict.

Neolithic Period

w In early agricultural societies, there is little differentiation in status based on sex (men buried with spears, women with flour querns) w Plow Agriculture brings shift in gender structure: about 3000 BCE

Plow Agriculture w Male tasks were raising cattle to pull carts and plows w Men raised cattle for milking and sheep for shearing w Women’s task became the spinning and weaving of cloth

Plow Agriculture w While it significantly increased food supply, it also increased resources needed to produce the food: animals, plows, storage containers, workers w 1st time in human culture that having material goods gave someone ability to amass more material goods; it increased the gap between rich and poor

Plow Agriculture w Boys were favored over girls for work they could do in agricultural labor and support they could provide parents in old age w Boys became inheritors of family land and rights to work communally held land w A nature/domestic and culture/public dichotomy grew as women were considered closer to nature and worked in the domestic realm while men began to see themselves separate from the natural world and part of the public realm of life

Civilization w As hereditary aristocracies developed, they became concerned with maintaining the distinction between them and the majority of the population w Led to laws controlling women’s reproduction, through laws governing sexual relations and through marriage norms and practices

Civilization w Women were placed under the legal authority of their husbands w Women often married men ten years older w Women thus increasingly derived their power and authority from their husbands rather than their own ability

Marriage w Usually, marriage set up a family unit where property was passed down to children w Extremely important for husbands that the children their wives bore were theirs w Thus, laws mandated that women be virgins on marriage, and imposed strict punishments for women’s adultery but not man’s

Marriage - Mesopotamia w Mesopotamian husbands veiled their spouses upon marriage; literally meant “shutting a door” w Family honor thus became tied to women’s sexuality, while men’s honor was tied to their work activities or performance of public duties

Marriage - Egypt w Repression probably less severe in Egypt - more queens wielded power and religious beliefs more egalitarian w Daughters could carry on family religious practices in the absence of a son

Religion and Gender Structure w Earliest human religions probably involved beliefs about forces and spirits linked to the natural world rather than personified gods and goddesses w During the Neolithic period, human formed deity of the fertility goddess or Mother Goddess tied to fertility of crops and animals emerged

Religion and Gender Structure w By the time writing and urban civilization developed in Mesopotamia, the creation story emphasized the role of a male deity over a female w Probably, religious beliefs were adapted to fit the new economic and social realities

Judaism - Divergence in Religion w One religious group whose beliefs differed from “neighbors”: monotheism w No female deity altogether, only male creator God, Yahweh or Jehovah w Women were not allowed to be priestesses; their duty revolved around household and not temple; authority of husband and father codified in Hebrew scripture

Gender and Class w Class and gender hierarchies intersected to form social realities w A few women, the daughters, wives, widows, came to rule either alongside their male family members or in their own right w Division of labor among slaves; men worked with crops, women with processing agricultural products (ex: weaving)

Gender Structure in Classical Civilizations 1000 BCE CE

New Developments w Each civilization generated characteristic family arrangements, including how spouses were selected w Clear ideas about gender and formation of gender roles in major cultural systems (Confucianism, Buddhism, Hinduism) w Gender relations stiffened, passed from generation to generation

Continuations from River Valley Civilizations w Importance of sons grew so that unwanted girl babies might simply be put to death (female infanticide) w Women’s legal disabilities grew w In philosophy, women regarded as necessary but clearly inferior and in need of male control - also, dangerous to men’s spiritual well-being w High status men felt it increasingly important to seclude their wives and daughters

Women rulers w Women occasionally ruled territories (example: Empress Wu in China) w Women’s rule was often informal; they took over when husband sick or sons were young w A woman who had power over a male ruler was portrayed as scheming and evil, while the male stereotype developed that a weak ruler let himself be advised by women

Spiritual Realm w In three major religions that developed during this period (Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism) women were able to achieve the ultimate spiritual goal along with men w Through monasteries and missionaries, women were able to choose life of religious devotion instead of marriage and motherhood.

Family Structures w Most people in classical cultures married, and were under the authority of the male head of household w Most cultures were patrilocal, where women went to live with men’s family upon marriage w Girls trained from a very young age in skills and attitudes that would make a good wife and mother

Family Structure w Most cultures patrilineal, so bearing sons important to continuation of the family line w Son’s births celebrated with special ceremonies and rituals not performed for girls w Unmarried men not regarded as fully adult w Marriage was a way for a man to escape the control of his father

Family Structure w Empires of the classical world regarded family as the basis for society; family and state intimately related to one another w The family served for men as the basis of their place in the world, while for women it was the location of their place in the world

Beyond the Family w Upper class men attended schools and other formalized institutions of learning, while women learned within the household w Women’s occupations and religious duties were all performed within the household w The only women seen outside were those of low status: slaves and servants bringing water from wells or marketing

China w Confucianism emphasized honoring ancestors, and sons were needed to continue rituals and family name w Women were expected to be subordinate; codified in “three obediences”: to her father as a daughter, to her husband as a wife, and to her son as a widow

China w Most powerful women attached to emperor’s household; as wives, widows, and concubines w Land in China was held mostly by aristocratic families and passed from generation to generation through the male members of the lineage

India w Girls married very early and went to live with husband’s family w Hinduism and Buddhism two most important cultural forces: Hindu texts teach that a woman can not gain final state of bliss before being reborn into a man w Buddhist texts also regard women as not capable of achieving enlightenment without first becoming men; and put all nuns under control of male monks

India w Other traditions stressed the power of women: many of Hindu deities are goddesses w Hindu stories stressed women’s service to men but also gave credit to initiative, cleverness, love, and sensuality - different from Confucian China w Family life and procreation religious duty

Classical Mediterranean Society w Classical Athens was sharply hierarchical: Aristotle saw only males as capable of perfection and described women as “deformed males”; the perfect human form was that of the young male and the perfect human relationship one between two men w Citizen women did not participate in education, politics, or civic life, and were usually secluded in the house

Classical Mediterranean Society w Slave women in Athens were not secluded and made the seclusion of the citizen women possible w Foreign women had number of occupations, including prostitution

Mediterranean Society - Rome w Romans considered the family unit the basis of social order w Families were patriarchal but men and women married at the same age and ideal was that husbands and wives should share interests, property, and activities w Because upper-class men were often absent from home in military or government duties, women took over running estates

Mediterranean - Christian World w Jesus’ teachings favorable to women; women took active role in spread of Christianity w Ideal that men and women should live celibate life had negative consequences for women: they were viewed as the primary temptation for church fathers and misogyny in some circles developed w Women could not preach or hold most official church positions