The politics of affluence Europe in the 1960s & 1970s

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From stringency to affluence Economic miracle in the 1950s results in sustained growth in western Europe Economic miracle in the 1950s results in sustained growth in western Europe Annual growth rates of 5-6% in 1950s & 1960sAnnual growth rates of 5-6% in 1950s & 1960s Full employment in Northern EuropeFull employment in Northern Europe Importation of ‘guest workers’ from Mediterranean rimImportation of ‘guest workers’ from Mediterranean rim Growing sense of wellbeing, welfare by early 1960sGrowing sense of wellbeing, welfare by early 1960s

Social changes: Urbanization: Urbanization: Shift from countryside to townsShift from countryside to towns Towns to citiesTowns to cities Changes in work Changes in work Further industrialization, then shift to service sectorFurther industrialization, then shift to service sector Growth in new service sector occupations Growth in new service sector occupations Growth in public sector jobs – needed to run expanding welfare states, systems of social protection Growth in public sector jobs – needed to run expanding welfare states, systems of social protection

Religion & social control Decreasing religiosity Decreasing religiosity John XXIII & changes in the Roman Catholic ChurchJohn XXIII & changes in the Roman Catholic Church Less inclination to instruct from pulpitLess inclination to instruct from pulpit Changes in Protestantism?Changes in Protestantism? Diminished social control: Diminished social control: Less inclination to censure television or filmsLess inclination to censure television or films Possibility of divorce opened upPossibility of divorce opened up Gradual removal of prohibitions on homosexualityGradual removal of prohibitions on homosexuality

Class differences Attempts to ensure more equal life chances – e.g. through comprehensive schools Attempts to ensure more equal life chances – e.g. through comprehensive schools Greater upward mobility – for some Greater upward mobility – for some In Northern Europe decreasing sense of deprivation: everyone is better off – In Northern Europe decreasing sense of deprivation: everyone is better off – UK: differences in speech, social mores continue UK: differences in speech, social mores continue France & Italy: sharper tensions, reflecting late industrialization & strong position of Communist trade unions & Communist parties France & Italy: sharper tensions, reflecting late industrialization & strong position of Communist trade unions & Communist parties

Changing lifestyles? Housing Housing Shopping Shopping Clothing Clothing Blue jeans as a leveler -- blurring of class distinctions Transportation Transportation Emergence of youth culture Emergence of youth culture Leisure Leisure Music Television Vacations Broader exposure Broader exposure Americanization?

Political consequences: Competing hypotheses: An end to ideology: ‘the democratic class struggle’ could go on without apocalyptic ideologies, red flags, May Day parades’ An end to ideology: ‘the democratic class struggle’ could go on without apocalyptic ideologies, red flags, May Day parades’ Post-materialism: those coming of age in affluence & relative security have the freedom to pursue post- material (quality of life) values: Erst das fressen, dan die morale’ Post-materialism: those coming of age in affluence & relative security have the freedom to pursue post- material (quality of life) values: Erst das fressen, dan die morale’

Changes in parties & party politics Centre right takes credit for new prosperity: Centre right takes credit for new prosperity: British Conservatives,British Conservatives, W. German Christian Democrats,W. German Christian Democrats, Gaullists in FranceGaullists in France Christian Democrats in ItalyChristian Democrats in Italy So do Social Democrats So do Social Democrats

Social Democratic parties: Abandon Marxism, doctrine of inevitable class conflict… Abandon Marxism, doctrine of inevitable class conflict… Pragmatic leaders emphasize increasing the pie rather than dividing it Pragmatic leaders emphasize increasing the pie rather than dividing it Emphasis on fairness, equality of life-chances Emphasis on fairness, equality of life-chances Managing capitalism rather than public ownership Managing capitalism rather than public ownership Evident in Evident in SPD: Bad GodesbergSPD: Bad Godesberg British Labour…British Labour… ScandinaviaScandinavia Netherlands & BelgiumNetherlands & Belgium

But not everyone agrees: Emergence of left socialist parties in Norway, Denmark, Netherlands… Emergence of left socialist parties in Norway, Denmark, Netherlands… Reject of strong cold war, pro-NATO orientation of Social Democratic parties,Reject of strong cold war, pro-NATO orientation of Social Democratic parties, Insist on reality of class conflictInsist on reality of class conflict Yet reject state socialism, Soviet dominationYet reject state socialism, Soviet domination Ongoing divisions in British Labour Party: Ongoing divisions in British Labour Party: Further nationalization of industryFurther nationalization of industry Foreign policy:Foreign policy: NATO membership v. unilateral disarmament NATO membership v. unilateral disarmament Europe Europe

Emergence of new conflicts & tensions By late 1960s, not only the cold war, but also Viet Nam as a backdrop By late 1960s, not only the cold war, but also Viet Nam as a backdrop Civil rights movement & anti-war protest in the USCivil rights movement & anti-war protest in the US Doubts about arms race, Soviet threatDoubts about arms race, Soviet threat Growing activism, questioning authorities, search for alternate lifestyles, e.g Growing activism, questioning authorities, search for alternate lifestyles, e.g Emergence of JUSOs (Young Socialists) in W. GermanyEmergence of JUSOs (Young Socialists) in W. Germany PROVO & dissident groups in the NetherlandsPROVO & dissident groups in the Netherlands Events of May 1968 in FranceEvents of May 1968 in France Hot Autumn in ItalyHot Autumn in Italy

Events of May 1968 Begin with demonstrations protesting limits on visiting hours in women’s residences Begin with demonstrations protesting limits on visiting hours in women’s residences Spread throughout university system, public institutions, with occupation of buildings Spread throughout university system, public institutions, with occupation of buildings Result in general strike, massive demonstrations, barricades in streets Result in general strike, massive demonstrations, barricades in streets At height, 10 million of a workforce of 17 m are out on strike or occupying buildingsAt height, 10 million of a workforce of 17 m are out on strike or occupying buildings Economy at a standstillEconomy at a standstill Counter-demonstrations launched Counter-demonstrations launched

Resolution De Gaulle and his premier (George Pompidou) initially hesitate De Gaulle and his premier (George Pompidou) initially hesitate Efforts of the Communist Party, (PCF) to channel or stop the demonstrations Efforts of the Communist Party, (PCF) to channel or stop the demonstrations CGT (Communist Union) turns political demands into economic demands CGT (Communist Union) turns political demands into economic demands Massive wage increases granted Massive wage increases granted Protests dissipate when De Gaulle dissolves parliament, calls new elections, blames Communists (‘Party of Fear’) Protests dissipate when De Gaulle dissolves parliament, calls new elections, blames Communists (‘Party of Fear’)

May 1968 in context Protests, occupations reflect deep-seated grievances Protests, occupations reflect deep-seated grievances Combine modes and techniques of 1960s (occupations) with modes from French Revolution – barricades in streetsCombine modes and techniques of 1960s (occupations) with modes from French Revolution – barricades in streets Sufficient to make regime more attentive and more responsive – but not completely so Sufficient to make regime more attentive and more responsive – but not completely so Continued protest potential, though rarely manifests on same scale Continued protest potential, though rarely manifests on same scale Cf. 1990s protests against education reformCf. 1990s protests against education reform

The Hot Autumn in Italy Autumn 1969 Autumn 1969 Wave of strikes and demonstrations, some spontaneous Wave of strikes and demonstrations, some spontaneous Rapid spreadRapid spread As in France, a heady political moment, As in France, a heady political moment, Long term: Long term: Increased benefits for workersIncreased benefits for workers Increased support for left, especially CommunistsIncreased support for left, especially Communists Communists nearly brought into governmentCommunists nearly brought into government Civil society begins to assert itself: Civil society begins to assert itself: 1977 initiative results in a referendum legalizing divorce1977 initiative results in a referendum legalizing divorce

Was there an end of ideology? Left and right moved toward each other Left and right moved toward each other Agree on desirability on managed economy and the social protections of the welfare stateAgree on desirability on managed economy and the social protections of the welfare state But, Social Democratic parties retain commitment to socialism, understood as a fairer distribution of wealthBut, Social Democratic parties retain commitment to socialism, understood as a fairer distribution of wealth Example of Swedish Social Democratic Party Example of Swedish Social Democratic Party Left socialist parties remain Left socialist parties remain Student groups, extra-parliamentary pick up & use fragments of Marxism Student groups, extra-parliamentary pick up & use fragments of Marxism e.g. JUSOS in Germanye.g. JUSOS in Germany Red Brigades in Italy, Baader-Meinhof group in GermanyRed Brigades in Italy, Baader-Meinhof group in Germany