EU Policies o 3 main differences between national and European policies: o EU policies typically involve the spending of very little money o The distance between those who formulate policy and those who execute it in practice is far greater in the EU than it is in most of the national systems which make up the union o The EU is active in a narrower range of policies than are national governments o Directive: o The most common form of EU legislation. Stipulates the end to be achieved but allows each member state to choose the form and method of achieving that end o Regulation: o A regulation is directly binding in its entirety on all member states

Breakdown of EU spending

Common Agricultural Policy o A French initiative – 1960s o Specificities of farming sector o Dependence on climatic conditions o Vulnerability to natural disasters o Public intervention necessary to guarantee decent living conditions for farmers o Centrally fixed prices (not market prices) to o Boost production o Support farmers’ incomes o Post-1945: food shortages, Cold War concerns o Self-sufficiency in foodstuffs: a major policy objective

CAP (2) o CAP : initially successful – objectives easily reached in 1960s o 1970s- 1980s: over-production (supply exceeding demand) and storing of surpluses (‘butter mountains’, ‘wine lakes’) = a political issue o CAP: too expensive to operate ? o Farmers’ opposition to CAP reform + reluctance to change o Identity and symbolic dimensions (farmers = independent workers) o Price guarantee vs. direct payments (salaries, social benefit payments )

CAP (3) o Unequal distribution of CAP benefits across member states o Older states = larger recipients (France, Germany, Spain, Italy) = 80% of CAP funding o New states = depend more on agriculture - Re-adjustment since 2007 = 20% of CAP funding o Shift from over-production to rural development and environmental protection - more reform needed but lack of general agreement = “Greening” of agriculture o Crop diversification, protection of natural resources, environmental sustainability, etc.. o Ireland = 7 th recipient of CAP funding o 2014 – 2020: € 1.5 billion p.a.

Cohesion Policy o Introduced 1973 o to reduce the inequalities between the regions of Europe o To compensate the governments of poor countries for the costs of economic integration o Ireland = one of first countries to benefit o Approx. 40% of EU budget o Every member state benefits - Policy acceptable to all o Most funding spent on neediest regions = where per capita GDP is less than 75 % of EU average o Economic divergence o New member states significantly poorer o Poorest regions all concentrated in new member states

Structural Funds Structural Funds: The Structural Funds and the Cohesion Funds are financial tools set up to implement the regional policy of the European Union. They aim to reduce regional disparities in terms of income, wealth and opportunities. o Current financial perspective (2007 – 2013) : Poland is largest recipient of cohesion funds

Environmental Policy o EU aims to “preserve, protect and improve the quality of the environment” o Environmental concerns: air and water pollution, waste disposal, noise limits (aircraft and motor vehicles), wildlife habitats (environmentally sensitive), quality standards for drinking and bathing water, etc. o 2004: “polluter pays” principle = Community Law o Climate change has potential for catastrophic change o EU = world leader in cutting ‘greenhouse’ emissions o Carbon tax introduced (or to be introduced) in a number of EU countries to punish worst polluters o Scandinavians = more environmentally conscious

Environmental Policy o Sustainable development o Human development should address needs of present generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs o Emissions trading Scheme – ETS o Market based instrument that offers polluters incentives to reduce their emissions o Environmental Impact Assessment - EIA o Systematic assessment procedure conducted on proposed developments in order to predict their impact on the environment o Ecological Modernization o Environmental protection can be reconciled with, and help to generate, economic growth and technological innovation

Countries most affected by climate change

Social Regulation o Environmental and social regulation = policies designed to cushion the impact of the market on society o Examples of social regulation: o Occupational health and safety legislation o Consumer protection (food scares, concerns over GMOs = genetically modified organisms) – European Food Safety Authority – US protests and accusation of protectionism: shielding European agriculture from foreign competition o Gender equality o Equal treatment on men and women (pensions) o Equal pay (income and benefits) o Laws against sexual harassment in the workplace