Basic Terminology

Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon2 Research Methods in Human Sexuality A Scientific Approach to Human Sexuality Populations and Samples: Representing the World of Diversity Methods of Observation The Correlational Method The Experimental Method The Comparative Method Ethics in Sex Research

3 Empiricism To study human sexuality, an empirical approach is used. –Knowledge is based on research evidence –Evidence must be reliable (when you repeat the study, the results are the same no matter who conducts the study) –Evidence must be valid (evidence must be logically related to what you are studying)

4 The Scientific Method –Induction is formulating a research question or hypothesis (a testable trial explanation or prediction) from observations/evidence –Deduction is testing the hypothesis using evidence –You then draw conclusions, and –Retest the conclusion with new evidence

5 Populations and Samples Population –A complete group of people or animals or things; the group to which you want to generalize your findings –Target population: particular group being studied (e.g, Americans, homosexuals) Sample –Part of a population from which you will collect data –In order to generalize results to the population, samples need to represent all the types of individuals in your population accurately.

6 Populations and Samples Sampling Methods –Random sample Every member of a population has an equal chance of being in the sample being studied For example, put all members of a population in a hat and draw the number needed for the sample –Stratified random sample Random sample in which known subgroups in a population are represented in proportion to their numbers in the population For example, if 87% of the population is Caucasian, sampling is done to ensure that 87% of the sample is Caucasian –Sex research suffers from volunteer bias People who participate are those willing to discuss intimate matters.

7 Methods of Observation The Case-Study Method –Individual case studies are in-depth biographies of individuals using interviews, questionnaires, and clinical –Ethnographic case studies are detailed descriptions of groups or cultures using observation, participant observation, interviewing and historical records –Problems with case studies Not as rigorous as experiments Observer bias

Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon8 Surveys –Study of a sample obtained using written questionnaires on which participants record their information. Will people tell you the truth? Are people really aware of what they actually do?

Interviews Structured interviews – reading a set of questions that are prepared ahead of time to participants and recording their answers Unstructured interviews – using content free questions to encourage participants to talk about what you are studying. Eg. Tell me about __ ? What kinds of __ have you experienced?

Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon10 Questionnaires Vs. Interviews Questionnaires are less expensive Questionnaires may be administered to many people at once Questionnaires are anonymous and therefore people may tell you more or may be more truthful Interviews can be given to those who can’t read Interviews can be more flexible and allow for more detailed information

11 Types of Surveys Surveys of Human Sexuality –The Kinsey Reports (1948 – 1953) –The NHSLS Study (1992) –The Playboy Foundation Survey (1974) –The Magazine Surveys –Surveys of Specific Populations

Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon12 Limitations of Surveys Volunteer bias Faulty estimation, poor recall Social desirability –A response bias in which the person provides a socially acceptable response Exaggeration Denial Misunderstanding because of differences in meanings of terms

13 Methods of Observation The Naturalistic-Observation Method –Behavior is observed where it naturally happens –Unobtrusive, without manipulation –Ethical dilemmas may arise –Eg. Behavior at a Prom, Sorority party, rave, etc.

14 Methods of Observation The Laboratory-Observation Method –Individuals are observed in a laboratory, where the situation can be better controlled. –Masters and Johnson’s research Measured the physiological responses involved with sexual behavior –Instruments directly measured vasocongestion (blood flow to the genitals) and myotonia (muscle tension) –Data depicted the sexual response cycles of men and women

15 Methods of Observation Physiological Measures of Sexual Arousal –Penile strain gauge Device for measuring sexual arousal in men Measures vasocongestion, which leads to erection in men –Vaginal photoplethysmograph Device for measuring sexual arousal in women Measures vasocongestion, which leads to vaginal lubrication in women

Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon16 Methods of Observation Vaginal Photoplethysmograph Penile Strain Gauge (Penile Plethysmograph)

17 The Correlational Method Correlation –Statistical measure of the relationship between two variables Correlational coefficient –Statistic that expresses the strength and direction (positive or negative) of the relationship between two variables Positive correlation: both variables increase or both variables decrease Negative correlation: one variable increases and the other variable decreases

18 The Correlational Method A correlation between two variables does not indicate that the relationship is a causal one. –Variable A may cause changes in variable B. –Variable B may cause changes in variable A. –Variable C may cause changes in variables A and B. However, a correlation does allow predictions to be made about the value of one variable given the value of the other.

19 The Experimental Method Experiment –Scientific method that seeks to confirm cause- and-effect relationships by manipulating independent variables and observing their effects on dependent variables –Aspects of an experiment: Sample, Experimental Group, Control Group, Independent Variable, Dependent variable, Stimulus, Pre-Test, Post-Test

20 The Experimental Method Independent variable –The variable that is believed to cause change in other variables Dependent variable –The variable that is changed by the independent variable.

21 The Experimental Method Experimental group –Group of study participants who receive a treatment Control group –Group of study participants who do not receive the experimental treatment –However, other conditions are held comparable to those for the experimental group.

Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon22 The Experimental Method Participants are put into the experimental or control group via random assignment. –Random assignment is important due to: Selection factor –Bias that may operate in research when people are allowed to determine whether they will receive a treatment –Groups should be relatively equal if random assignment is used

Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon23 The Experimental Method The Effect of Caffeine on Sexual Arousal Time IV = Caffeine, DV = Sexual Arousal Time Experimental Group: Drink a beverage with caffeine and be presented with an arousing image; arousal time would be measured Control Group: Drink a beverage without caffeine and be presented with same arousing image; arousal time would be measured If the Experimental group was slower to be aroused, it would be due to the caffeine.

Copyright 2008 Allyn & Bacon24 Ethics in Sex Research Ethical issues: –Do no harm –Confidentiality –Informed consent –Deception The Tuskegee Syphilis Study

What is a Theory? Definition: a set of related hypotheses that provide a better explanation than any single hypothesis. You are using a theory if you are dealing with any of the following: Definitions Components of concepts Relationships between concepts Attempts to model how a system works Explanations Predictions

Some Theoretical Approaches to Sex and Gender Nature Vs. Nurture Theories Biological Theories Cross-Species Studies Evolutionary Psychology Cross-Cultural Studies Psychoanalytic Theory Learning Theory Feminist Theory Queer Theory

Biological Approaches Assuming that genetics, anatomy and physiology can explain sexuality and gender The study of brain, internal and external genitalia as well as the hormone and nervous systems that connect the parts of the body that are involved in sex and gender identity. Sometimes called the ‘Nature’ approach

Cross-Species Studies Looking at other animals to see if what humans do is “natural” (occurs in nature) or “unnatural” The Bonobos are a good example of a species of chimpanzee that has contributed knowledge about primate sexuality. Also part of the “nature” approach

Bonobo Intercourse in Missionary Position

Bonobo Females “GG Rubbing”

Bonobo Males “Rump- Rubbing”

Bonobo Female Masturbating

Bonobo Male Display

Evolutionary Psychology A theory that assumes that human behaviors have evolved over time just as anatomical and physiological features have Human behaviors can be more or less adaptive, and result in more or fewer genes being passed on to the next and subsequent generations One evolutionary psychology theory is Parental Investment Theory

Some Parental Investment Theory (PIT) Definitions Parental investment – biological, economic, social and emotional support for offspring. Differential reproduction – variability in the number of offspring produced by individuals. Reproductive potential – the maximum number of offspring possible for an individual. Reproductive success – production of offspring that survive and reproduce.

Logical Connections from PIT Human males only have to make a minimal parental investment to obtain reproductive success (a few sperm) Female humans must make an enormous parental investment to obtain reproductive success (+/- 5 years) Male humans have reproductive potential limited only by the number of partners Females have limited reproductive potential because of the investment needed from mothers Males and females will have significantly different mate selection strategies because of differential parental investment.

Some PIT Assumptions Human mate choice is influenced by inherited characteristics Inherited characteristics will reflect the most successful mating strategies over time Human mate choice is influenced by both conscious and unconscious factors Culture is the learned set of strategies that help individuals maximize their reproductive success. Also part of the “nature” approach

Cross-Cultural Studies Bronislaw Malinowski studied sexuality among the Trobriand Islanders (north of Australia) during World War I. Premarital sex with multiple sexual partners normal Kids encouraged to masturbate, Etc. Part of the “nurture” approach

Psychoanalytic Theory Sigmund Freud Sex is the central issue in the psyche Sexual Symbolism Stages Psychosexual Development 1.Oral Stage 2.Anal Stage 3.Phallic/Oedipal Stage 4.Latency Stage 5.Genital Stage Combines “nature” and “nurture”

Learning Theory Rewards Punishment Modeling Definitely a “nurture” approach

Feminist Theory Developed in the late 1960’s and 1970’s Attempted to include women in the theoretical and practical approaches to understanding culture and humans, especially in terms of sexuality and gender Address issues of women’s rights and gender stratification

Queer Theory Challenges the polarized views of western society that see only two genders and one acceptable sexual orientation. Proposes alternative models of sex and gender Challenges the idea that only certain kinds of sexual activities are “natural” and that others are immoral and “unnatural”