Slide 1 Richard T. Schaefer 1 st Edition Slide 1 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. chapter two Sociology in Modules Sociological Research

Slide 2 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 5: What is the Scientific Method? Module 6: Major Research Designs Module 7: Ethics of Research Module 8: Developments of Methodology Sociological Research 2

Slide 3 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. █ How do sociologists go about setting up a research project? A Look Ahead █ How do they ensure that their results are reliable and accurate? █ Can they avoid violating the rights of those they study?

Slide 4 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. What is the Scientific Method? █ Systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem Module 5

Slide 5 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 5-1: The Scientific Method Module 5

Slide 6 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. █ Defining the Problem Scientific Method –Operational definition: Explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow researchers to assess the concept █ Reviewing the Literature Refines problem under study Module 5

Slide 7 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. █ Formulating the Hypothesis Scientific Method –Hypothesis: Speculative statement about the relationship between two or more factors known as variables –Variable: Measurable trait or characteristic subject to change under different conditions Independent variable: Variable hypothesized to cause or influence another Dependent variable: Action depends on the influence of the independent variable Module 5

Slide 8 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation █ Formulating the Hypothesis Scientific Method –Causal logic: Involves relationships between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other –Correlation: Exists when change in one variable coincides with change in another Module 5

Slide 9 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 5-2: Educational Level and Household Income in the United States Module 5

Slide 10 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 5-3: Causal Logic Module 5

Slide 11 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Collecting and Analyzing Data █ Selecting the Sample –Sample: Selection from a larger population that is statistically typical of that population –Random sample: When every member of a population has the same chance of being selected –Snowball samples – participants recruited through word of mouth or by posting notices on the Internet Module 5

Slide 12 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Collecting and Analyzing Data █ Ensuring Validity and Reliability –Validity: Degree to which the measure reflects the phenomenon being studied –Reliability: Extent to which the measure provides consistent results Module 5

Slide 13 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Developing the Conclusion █ Supporting the Hypothesis –Sociological studies do not always generate data that support original hypothesis –Controlling for other factors Control variable: Factor held constant to test the impact of the independent variable Module 5

Slide 14 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 5-4: Impact of a College Education on Income Module 5

Slide 15 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Major Research Designs █ Research design: Detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically –Surveys –Observation –Experiments –Existing sources Module 6

Slide 16 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Surveys █ Study that provides sociologists with information about how people act or think –Interview: Researcher obtains information through face-to-face or telephone questioning –Questionnaire: Researcher uses printed or written form to obtain information from respondent Module 6

Slide 17 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Surveys █ Quantitative research: Collects and reports data primarily in numerical form █ Qualitative research: Relies on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings; often focuses on small groups and communities Module 6

Slide 18 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Research Today █ Surveying Cell Phone Users –Are you a cell phone-only user? If so, do you generally accept calls from unknown numbers? –Which of the problems that arise during telephone surveys might also arise during Internet surveys? Might Internet surveys involve some unique problems? Module 6

Slide 19 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Observation █ Collecting information through direct participation and/or by closely watching a group or community –Observation: Sociologist joins group to get accurate sense of how it operates –Ethnography: Efforts to describe an entire social setting through extended systematic observation Module 6

Slide 20 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Experiments █ Artificially created situation that allows researcher to manipulate variables –Experimental group: Exposed to independent variable –Control group: Not exposed to independent variable –Hawthorne Effect: Unintended influence of observers or experiments on subjects Module 6

Slide 21 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Use of Existing Sources █ Secondary analysis: Research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data Content analysis: Systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale Module 6

Slide 22 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Research Today █ What’s In a Name? –According to how popular is your first name? Is it becoming more or less fashionable over time? –Using the Name Mapper feature at find out how popular your name is in the state where you were born. Module 6

Slide 23 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Ethics of Research █ Code of Ethics (ASA, 1997) 1.Maintain objectivity and integrity in research 2.Respect subjects’ right to privacy and dignity 3.Protect subjects from personal harm 4.Preserve confidentiality 5.Seek informed consent 6.Acknowledge collaboration and assistance 7.Disclose sources of financial support Module 7

Slide 24 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Ethics of Research █ Confidentiality █ Conflict of Interest █ Value Neutrality –Investigators have ethical obligation to accept research findings even when the data run counter to their personal views, to theoretically based explanations, or to widely accepted beliefs Module 7

Slide 25 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Feminist Methodology █ Feminist perspective had greatest impact on current generation of researchers –See work and family as closely integrated –Noted that studies tend to overlook women –Questioned commonly accepted methodological techniques –Tend to involve and consult subjects more than other researchers –More oriented toward seeking change, raising public consciousness, and influencing policy Module 8

Slide 26 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Technology and Sociological Research █ Extends range and capability to conduct research █ Allows researchers to store and analyze large amounts of information █ Web-based surveys in early stages, but have basic limitation Module 8

Slide 27 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Studying Human Sexuality █ Understanding the Issue –Kaiser Family Foundation found more than two-thirds of TV shows include some sexual content –How does one carry out scientific research on such a controversial and personal topic? Module 8

Slide 28 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Studying Human Sexuality █ Applying Sociology –Little reliable national data on patterns of sexual behavior in U.S. –Government funding for studies of sexual behavior is controversial Module 8

Slide 29 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. █ Applying Sociology Studying Human Sexuality –Federal government is major source of funding for sociological research –ASA’s Code of Ethics does not address whether sociologists who accept funding from a particular agency or corporation may also accept the agency’s perspective on what needs to be studied Module 8

Slide 30 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. █ Initiating Policy Studying Human Sexuality –In 1991, U.S. Senate forbid funding any survey on adult sexual practices –Laumann, Gagnon, Michaels, and Michael developed NHSLS to better understand sexual practices of adults in U.S. –Used $1.6 million of private funding to fund research Module 8

Slide 31 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 8-1: Percentage of Television Shows that Contain Sexual Content Module 8

Slide 32 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure 8-2: Median Age of First Sex Module 8

Slide 33 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. █ Percentage: Shows portion of 100 Using Statistics █ Mean: Average; sum of a series of values divided by the number of values █ Mode: Single most common value in a series of values █ Median: Midpoint that divides a series of values into two groups with equal numbers of values Appendix I

Slide 34 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. █ Tables allow social scientists to display data and make it easier to develop conclusions Reading Graphs –Cross-tabulation: Shows relationship between two or more variables Graphs are often easier for the general public to understand Appendix I

Slide 35 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure A-3: Changing Attitudes Toward the Legalization of Marijuana Appendix I

Slide 36 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Figure A-4: People Who Favor Legalization of Marijuana by Gender and Age, 2009 Appendix I

Slide 37 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. █ Finding Information Writing a Research Report –Check textbooks –Use library catalog –Use computerized periodical indexes –Examine government documents –Use newspapers –Ask people, organizations, and agencies –Consult instructor Appendix II

Slide 38 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. █ Writing the Report Writing a Research Report –Focus on topic –Develop an outline –Work ahead of deadline –Read paper aloud █ Including Citations and References Appendix II