Motivation Refers to the various physiological and psychological factors that cause us to act in a specific way at a particular time.

Psychologists have proposed over 6,000 different instincts to explain every kind of human motivation. Instinct- are innate tendencies or biological forces that determine behavior. Fixed Action Pattern- an innate biological force that predisposes an organism to behave in a fixed way in the presence of a specific environmental condition. Instinct Theory

Drive-Reduction Theory Theory states that a need results in a drive, which is a state of tension that motivates the organism to act to reduce the tension and return the body to homeostasis. Need- a biological state in which the organism lacks something essential for survival. Drive- a state of tension that motivates the organism to act to reduce that tension. Homeostasis- tendency of the body to return to, and remain in, a more balanced state. Drive-Reduction Theory

Incentives- environmental factors, such as external stimuli, reinforcers, or rewards, that motivate our behavior. Grades, praise, money, degree etc. Incentive Theory

Motivation based on intrinsic rewards. Intrinsic Motivation- involves engaging in certain activities or behaviors because the behaviors themselves are personally rewarding or because engaging in these activities fulfills our beliefs or expectations. Cognitive Theory

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Level 5- Self-Actualization: Fulfillment of one’s unique potential. Level 4- Esteem Needs: Achievement, competency, gaining approval and recognition. Level 3- Love and Belonging Needs: Affiliation with others and acceptance by others. Level 2- Safety Needs: Protection from harm. Level 1- Physiological Needs: Food, water, sex, sleep. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Optimal Weight- results from an almost perfect balance between how much food an organism eats and how much it needs to meet its body’s energy needs. Overweight- 20% over optimal weight Obesity- 30% or more over optimal weight. Hunger

Biological Hunger Factors Come from physiological changes in blood chemistry and signals from digestive organs that provide feedback to the brain, which, in turn, triggers us to eat or stop eating. If eating was regulated by these factors primarily… you would remain and optimal weight. Biological Hunger Factors

Psychosocial Hunger Factors Comes from learned associations between food and other stimuli, such as snacking while watching TV; socioculture influences, such as pressures to be thin; and various personality problems, such as depression, dislike of body image, or low self-esteem. Psychosocial Hunger Factors

Genetic Hunger Factors Come from inherited instructions found in our genes. These instructions determine the number of fat cells or metabolic rates of burning off the body’s fuel, which push us toward being normal, overweight, or underweight. Genetic Hunger Factors

Sources of Biological Hunger Factors Peripheral Cues- come from changes in blood chemistry or signals from digestive organs. Central Cues- come from the activity of chemicals and neurotransmitters in different areas of the brain. Sources of Biological Hunger Factors

Stomach- monitors the amount and kinds of nutrients our body needs to restore our depleted stores of fuel. In addition, after we eat a meal, the stomach’s walls are distended and their stretch receptors signal fullness and time to stop eating. Liver- monitors nutrients, especially the level of glucose (sugar) in the blood. When the level of glucose falls, the liver signals hunger; when it rises, the liver signals full. Intestines- respond to the presence of food, especially fats, by secreting a hormone called CCK (cholecystokinin), which inhibits eating. Fat Cells- secrete a hormone (leptin) that is monitored by the brain. In turn, the brain signals a person to eat or stop eating so that a certain level of body fat remains constant over a lifetime. Peripheral Cues

Hypothalamus- area of brain that has many different groups of cells that are involved in a number of different behaviors having to do with motivation, such as thirst, sexual behavior, and regulation of hunger. Lateral Hypothalamus- a group of cells that regulates hunger by creating feelings of being hungry. Ventromedial Hypothalamus- a group of cells that regulates hunger by creating feelings of satiety (say-TIE-ah-tea), or fullness. Galanin- a chemical produced by the brain, acts on the hypothalamus and stimulates eating fat. Norepinephrine, which is a neurotransmitter produced by the brain, acts on the hypothalamus and stimulates eating carbohydrates. Central Cues

Anorexia- eating disorder in which the desire to be thin drives a person to not eat; or partially starve themselves. Bulimia- A person that participates in binge eating and then regurgitating the food so their body does not absorb the fat cells. Eating Disorders

Sexual Behavior Genetic Sex Factors Biological Sex Factors Psychological Sex Factors Sexual Behavior

Genetic Influences on Sexual Behavior Sex Chromosome- In the sperm and the egg; contains 23 chromosomes, which in turn have genes that contain instructions for determining sex of child. Genetic Influences on Sexual Behavior

Biological Influences on Sexual Behavior Sex Hormones- Testosterone for men and estrogen for women. Male Hypothalamus- Triggers release of male sex hormones. Female Hypothalamus- Triggers release of female sex hormones. Biological Influences on Sexual Behavior

Psychological Influences on Sexual Behavior Gender Identity Gender Roles Sexual Orientation Psychological Influences on Sexual Behavior

Achievement Social Needs- Acquired through learning and experience Achievement Needs- desire to set challenging goals and persistence in pursuing those goals. Fear of Failure- Avoid failure by choosing easy, nonchallenging tasks. Self-Handicapping- Doing things that contribute to failure then using those things as an excuse, knowingly or unknowingly. Underachievers- are individuals who have a lot of potential, but fail to achieve. Achievement

Intrinsic Motivation- involves engaging in certain activities or behaviors without receiving any external rewards because the behaviors themselves are personally rewarding in some way. Extrinsic Motivation- involves engaging in certain activities or behaviors that either reduce biological needs or help us obtain incentives and external rewards. Cognitive Influences