©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Chapter 7 Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood Physical Development In Early Childhood Cognitive Development In Early Childhood

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Physical Development In Early Childhood Body Growth and Changes Motor Development Health and Wellness

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Body Growth and Change Height and Weight The Brain

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Height and Weight The average child grows 6.35 cm and gains between 2.2 and 32.5 kg a year in early childhood. The percentage of increase in height and weight decreases with each additional year. Body fat shows a steady decline during this time. Girls are only slightly smaller and lighter than boys, but they have more body fat while boys have more muscle tissue. Boys and girls slim down as their trunks lengthen.

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Individual Differences Much of the variation in body size is due to heredity. The two most important contributors to height differences are: –Ethnic origin –Nutrition

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Contributors to Short Stature Congenital Factors (genetic or prenatal problems) Physical Problems That Develop in Childhood Emotional Difficulties

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. The Brain The brain and the head grow more rapidly than any other part of the body. By age 3, the brain is three-quarters of its adult size, and by age 5, the brain has reached about nine-tenths of its adult size. Some of this size increase is due to increase in size and number of nerve endings and an increase in myelination. Myelination is believed to be important in the maturation of a number of children’s abilities. From 3–6 years of age, researchers have found that the most rapid brain growth occurs in the frontal lobe.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Motor Development Gross Motor Development Fine Motor Development Handedness

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Gross Motor Skills At 3 years of age, children enjoy simple movements such as hopping, jumping, and running just for the fun of it and the pride they feel in their accomplishment. At 4 years of age, children become more adventurous—taking on jungle gyms and climbing stairs with one foot on each step. At 5 years of age, children begin to perform hair- raising stunts on anything they can climb on, and they enjoy racing with each other and with parents.

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Fine Motor Skills At age 3, children are still clumsy at picking up very small objects between their thumb and forefinger. Three-year-olds can build very high block towers, but the blocks are usually not in a perfectly straight line. Puzzles are approached with a good deal of roughness and imprecision. By age 4, their coordination has improved and become more precise. By age 5, children are no longer interested in building towers, but rather houses, churches, and buildings with more detail.

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Handedness Preference for one hand is linked with the dominance of one brain hemisphere with regard to motor performance. Right-handers have a dominant left hemisphere, while left-handers have a dominant right hemisphere. Evidence of handedness is present in infancy, as babies show preferences for one side of their body over the other. Many preschool children use both hands without a clear preference emerging until later in childhood. The origin of hand preference has been explored with regard to genetic inheritance and environmental experience.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Health and Wellness Energy Needs Eating Behaviour Wellness in Canada Wellness in Poor Countries

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Energy Needs What children eat affects their skeletal growth, body shape, and susceptibility to disease. An average preschool child requires 1,700 calories per day. Energy requirements for children are determined by the basal metabolism rate (BMR): the minimum amount of energy a person uses in a resting state. Differences in physical activity, basal metabolism, and the efficiency with which children use energy are among the possible explanation as to why children of the same age, sex, and size vary in their energy needs.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Eating Behaviour Children’s habits become ingrained very early in life; eating habits during the preschool years will establish later eating behaviours. Preschool is when children get their first taste of fast food. Our changing lifestyles, in which we often eat on the run and pick up fast-food meals, contribute to the increased fat levels in children’s diets.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Wellness in Canada Childhood immunization is still necessary to prevent many childhood diseases such as chicken pox. Unintentional injuries are the leading cause of death for children between the ages of 1 and 9. Children of parents who smoke are twice as likely to have respiratory problems and have lower levels of vitamin C. Canada has one of the highest child poverty rates among 22 industrialized countries. Aboriginal children have poorer health overall.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Wellness in Poor Countries The poor often experience lives of hunger, malnutrition, unsafe water, and inadequate health care. The leading cause of childhood death in impoverished countries is dehydration from such causes as diarrhea. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of HIV-infected children over the past decade.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Cognitive Development In Early Childhood Piaget’s Preoperational Stage of Development Vygotsky’s Theory Information Processing Language Development Early Childhood Education

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Piaget’s Preoperational Stage of Development Characteristics of the Preoperational Stage Definition of Operations Symbolic Function Substage Intuitive Thought Substage

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Characteristics of Preoperational Stage The preoperational stage lasts from 2–7 years old. During this time stable concepts form, mental reasoning emerges, egocentrism begins, and magical beliefs are constructed. Thought is flawed and not organized. This stage involves a transition from primitive to more sophisticated use of symbols. Children still do not yet think in an operational way.

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Definition of Operations Operations are internalized sets of actions that allow the child to do mentally what before he/she did physically.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Symbolic Function Substage The ability to think symbolically and to represent the world mentally predominates in this substage. It occurs roughly between the ages of 2–4. Symbolic function is demonstrated by the child’s ability to mentally represent an object not present. Symbolism is evident in scribbled designs, language, and pretend play Two important limitations in thought at this stage are egocentrism and animism.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Egocentrism Egocentrism is the inability to distinguish between one’s own perspective and someone else’s perspective. It is a salient feature of preoperational thought. Perspective-taking doesn’t develop uniformly in preschool children, as they frequently show perspective skills on some tasks but not others.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Animism Animism is the belief that inanimate objects have “lifelike” qualities and are capable of action. A child may believe that a tree pushes its leaves off in the fall, or that the sidewalk made him/her trip and fall down.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Intuitive Thought Substage In this stage, children begin to use primitive reasoning and want to know the answers to all sorts of questions. It occurs roughly between the ages of 4–7. Piaget used the term intuitive because children say they know something, but they know it without the use of rational thinking. Children in this stage also ask a barrage of questions, signalling the emergence of their interest in reasoning and why things are the way they are.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Centration Centration is the focusing or centring of attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others. It is a major characteristic of preoperational thought, evidenced in young children’s lack of conservation.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Conservation Conservation refers to an awareness that altering an object’s or a substance’s appearance does not change its basic properties. Although obvious to adults, preoperational children lack conservation. A lack of conservation not only demonstrates the presence of centration, but also an inability to mentally reverse actions. uleID=220 (Cognition: Advances and Limits in Childhood: “Development of Concept of Conservation”) uleID=220

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Vygotsky’s Theory The Zone of Proximal Development Scaffolding Language and Thought

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. The Zone of Proximal Development The zone of proximal development is Vygotsky’s term for the range of tasks too difficult for children to master alone but which can be learned with the guidance and assistance of adults or more skilled children. The lower limit is the level of problem solving reached by the child working independently. The upper limit is the level of additional responsibility the child can accept with the assistance of an able instructor. Vygotsky’s emphasis on the ZPD underscores his belief in the importance of social influences, especially instruction, on children’s cognitive development.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Scaffolding Scaffolding refers to changing the level of support. Over the course of a teaching session, a more skilled person adjusts the amount of guidance to fit the student’s current performance level. Dialogue is an important tool of scaffolding in the zone of proximal development. As the child’s unsystematic, disorganized, spontaneous concepts meet with the skilled helper’s more systematic, logical, and rational concepts through meeting and dialogue, the child’s concepts become more systematic, logical, and rational.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Language and Thought Vygotsky believed that young children use language both for social communication and to plan, guide, and monitor their behaviour in a self-regulatory fashion. Language used for this purpose is called inner speech or private speech. For Piaget, private speech is egocentric and immature, but for Vygotsky it is an important tool of thought during early childhood.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Language and Thought (cont’d) Vygotsky believed all mental functions have social origins. Children must use language to communicate with others before they can focus on their own thoughts. Researchers have found support for Vygotsky’s view of the positive role of private speech in development.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Comparison of Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Theories Vygotsky’s theory is a social constructivist approach, which emphasizes the social contexts of learning and that knowledge is mutually built and constructed. Piaget’s theory does not have this social emphasis. For Piaget, children construct knowledge by transforming, organizing, and reorganizing previous knowledge. For Vygotsky, children construct knowledge through social interaction.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Comparison of Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s Theories (cont’d) The implication of Piaget’s theory for teaching is that children need support to explore their world and discover knowledge. The implication of Vygotsky’s theory for teaching is that students need many opportunities to learn with the teacher and more skilled peers. Vygotsky’s theory has been embraced by many teachers and successfully applied to education.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Information Processing Attention Memory Strategies The Young Child’s Theory of Mind

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Attention The child’s ability to pay attention changes significantly during the preschool years. Preschool children are influenced strongly by the features of a task that stand out, or are salient. This deficit can hinder problem solving or performing well on tasks. By age 6 or 7, children attend more efficiently to the dimensions of a task that are relevant. This is believed to reflect a shift in cognitive control of attention.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Memory Short-Term Memory How Accurate Are Young Children’s Long-Term Memories?

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Short-Term Memory In short-term memory, individuals retain information for up to 15–30 seconds, assuming there is no rehearsal, which can help keep information in STM for a much longer period. Differences in memory span occur across the ages due to: –Rehearsal: older children rehearse items more than younger children. –Speed and efficiency of processing information: the speed with which a child processes information is an important aspect of the child’s cognitive abilities.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. How Accurate Are Young Children’s Long-Term Memories? Young children can remember a great deal of information if they are given appropriate cues and prompts. Sometimes the memories of preschoolers seem to be erratic, but these inconsistencies may be to some degree the result of inadequate prompts and cues.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Strategies Strategies consist of using deliberate mental activities to improve the processing of information: –Rehearsal –Organizing information Young children typically do not use rehearsal and organization. Children as young as 2 can learn to use other types of strategies to process information.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. The Young Children’s Theory of Mind Theory of mind refers to the awareness of one’s own mental processes and the mental processes of others. Even young children are curious about the nature of the human mind.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. The Young Children’s Theory of Mind (cont’d) Children’s theory of mind changes as they go through the early childhood years: –Two to three years of age they understand three mental states: Perceptions Desires Emotions –Four to Five years of age they come to understand that the mind can represent objects and events accurately and inaccurately. –They also realize that people can have false beliefs,

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Language Development Young children’s understanding sometimes gets ahead of their speech. Many of the oddities of young children’s language sound like mistakes to adult listeners, but from the children’s perspective, they are not. As children go through early childhood, their grasp of the rules of language increases (morphology, semantics, pragmatics).

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Morphology As children move beyond two-word utterances, they know morphology rules. They begin using plurals and possessive forms of nouns. They put appropriate endings on verbs. They use prepositions, articles, and various forms of the verb to be. Children demonstrate knowledge of morphological rules with plural forms of nouns, possessive forms of nouns, and the third-person singular and past tense forms of verbs.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Semantics As children move beyond the two-word stage, their knowledge of meanings rapidly advances. The speaking vocabulary of a 6-year-old ranges from 8,000 to 14,000 words. According to some estimates, the average child of this age is learning about 22 words a day!

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Pragmatics No difference is as dramatic as the difference between a 2-year-old’s language and a 6-year-old’s language in terms of pragmatics—the rules of conversation. At about 3 years of age, children improve their ability to talk about things that are not physically present— referred to as “displacement.” Displacement is revealed in games of pretend. Large individual differences seen in preschoolers’ talk about imaginary people and things.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Early Childhood Education The Child-Centred Kindergarten The Montessori Approach Developmentally Appropriate and Inappropriate Practices in the Education of Young Children Does Preschool Matter? Education for Children Who Are Disadvantaged

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. The Child-Centred Kindergarten In the child-centred kindergarten, education involves the whole child and includes concern for the child’s physical, cognitive, and social development. Instruction is organized around the child’s needs, interests, and learning styles. The process of learning, rather than what is learned, is emphasized. Experimenting, exploring, discovering, trying out, restructuring, speaking, and listening are all part of an excellent kindergarten program.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. The Montessori Approach The Montessori Approach is a philosophy of education in which children are given considerable freedom and spontaneity in choosing activities. They are allowed to move from one activity to another as they desire. The teacher acts as a facilitator rather than a director of learning. While it fosters independence, it deemphasizes verbal interaction. Criticism of the approach is that it neglects children’s social development and restricts imaginative play;

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Developmentally Appropriate and Inappropriate Practices in the Education of Young Children Developmentally appropriate practice is based on knowledge of the typical development of children within an age span, as well as the uniqueness of the child. Developmentally inappropriate practice ignores the concrete, hands-on approach to learning. Direct teaching largely through abstract paper-and-pencil activities presented to large groups of young children is believed to be developmentally inappropriate.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Does Preschool Matter? Preschool matters if parents do not have the commitment, time, energy, and resources to provide young children with an environment that approximates a good early childhood program. If parents have the competence and resources to provide young children with a variety of learning experiences and exposure to other children and adults, along with opportunities for extensive play, this may be sufficient.

©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd. Education for Children Who Are Disadvantaged American Project Head Start is a compensatory education program designed to provide children from low-income families the opportunity to acquire skills and experiences important for success in school. Health Canada started a similar program in 1995, called the Aboriginal Head Start Initiative, to provide comprehensive care to families and preschool-aged children in Aboriginal communities. A similar program in Montreal – 1,2,3 Go! – was developed in 1999.