Cambridge University Press © Kiss, Kleoudis, Rasi, Stewart and Johnston 2010 Chapter 14: Factors affecting access to sport and physical activity V – the cultural level

Cambridge University Press © Kiss, Kleoudis, Rasi, Stewart and Johnston 2010 Figueroa’s cultural level refers to the level at which societal norms and values impact upon the participation of groups or individuals in society. This level also looks at which beliefs and assumptions are identified as being entrenched with cultural expectations brought about by the very powerful process of socialisation. The cultural level of Figueroa’s framework

Cambridge University Press © Kiss, Kleoudis, Rasi, Stewart and Johnston 2010 Question for Understanding What is SOCIALISATION? The process by which people acquire the values, beliefs, attitudes and behavioural norms of their culture

Cambridge University Press © Kiss, Kleoudis, Rasi, Stewart and Johnston 2010 How people perceive their bodies can have a dramatic impact on the choices they make with regard to sport and physical activities. This is because we are influenced by the culture of a society’s generalisations or ideas about specific body shapes and various sports. Many generalisations exist about the correlation between specific body shapes and various sports that remain as a powerful influence on the choices that individuals make about their own participation. Cultural influences on body image and sport

Cambridge University Press © Kiss, Kleoudis, Rasi, Stewart and Johnston 2010 Body image and gender are social constructs (that is, dominant ideas and interpretations of body image and gender made by members of society) that can reflect the interpretations of masculinity and femininity of society at the time. In turn, this dictates and influences the paths we take and choices we make in regard to sport participation. Cultural influences on body image and sport (cont.)

Cambridge University Press © Kiss, Kleoudis, Rasi, Stewart and Johnston 2010 Activity 14.1 pg 391

Cambridge University Press © Kiss, Kleoudis, Rasi, Stewart and Johnston 2010 Biological differences – in the past, biological differences between male and female were used to explain why certain people with specific body characteristics were successful in certain sports compared to people who did not possess the same bodily characteristics. For example, cricket or Rugby League were sports that were designed for male traits only and sports like ballet were for the graceful female body. Factors influencing gender roles in sport

Cambridge University Press © Kiss, Kleoudis, Rasi, Stewart and Johnston 2010 Naturalism pg 392 seeks to explain that the human body has evolved over time to look or perform the way it does as it acts in response to the physical demands placed upon it. For example, African Americans are good track athletes, Asians are good at table tennis and Caucasians are good at swimming. Factors influencing gender roles in sport (cont.)

Cambridge University Press © Kiss, Kleoudis, Rasi, Stewart and Johnston 2010 Inheriting such physical attributes predisposes us to certain physical activities and this leads to social generalisations about gifted and natural athletes. Social thinking – as biological differences were used to differentiate the sexes and their sport roles, it became a belief or accepted as part of a conditioned Australian society. Individuals then became typecast to particular sports according to their gender. Australian society has since evolved, providing access to all or most sports for both genders. Factors influencing gender roles in sport (cont.)

Cambridge University Press © Kiss, Kleoudis, Rasi, Stewart and Johnston 2010 Constructionism argues that the values and beliefs, both at a personal and societal level, determine the ideal body images of the time (for example, wafer-thin models and muscular buffed males of today) and that humans aspire and respond to these desirable physical traits by attempting to emulate them. Factors influencing gender roles in sport (cont.)

Cambridge University Press © Kiss, Kleoudis, Rasi, Stewart and Johnston 2010 In this way, the dominant culture of the day will influence individuals by socially constructing what the ideal body shape should be and influencing the sport they wish to participate in. As identified by Figueroa’s framework, powerful cultural understandings or misunderstandings about gender roles in society affect the access to sport for most male and female participants. Factors influencing gender roles in sport (cont.)

Cambridge University Press © Kiss, Kleoudis, Rasi, Stewart and Johnston 2010 Life itself is made up of diverse facets that are also reflected in sport. Sport therefore becomes a social construct of society itself and will reflect all of our positive and negative traits of culture within that society. Gender perception, values, attitudes, beliefs and behaviours that are displayed within a culture will be evident in sport. For example, issues pertaining to drugs and racism also exist in sport. Such societal issues in sport can impact one’s access in participating in sport and physical activities. Sport as a microcosm of society

Cambridge University Press © Kiss, Kleoudis, Rasi, Stewart and Johnston 2010 Gender refers to the social significance attributed to the biological differences of males and females. Gender indifferences play a key role in influencing the accessibility to sport and the equitable distribution of resources and rewards. Gender differences are sociological because gender is socially constructed. Psychological differences between genders determine the way we think and what we do. The social construction of gender and its impact on access to sport

Cambridge University Press © Kiss, Kleoudis, Rasi, Stewart and Johnston 2010 The socialisation processes that determine gender are exposed to us on a continual basis and we respond to them in varying degrees over time. Over time, we receive messages from society that have the intention of developing our preferences in line with social norms and accepted dominant versions of gender. The social construction of gender and its impact on access to sport (cont.)

Cambridge University Press © Kiss, Kleoudis, Rasi, Stewart and Johnston 2010 Society constructs generalisations as a result of the dominance of certain behaviours within each sport and are defined as masculine or feminine. Using Figueroa’s cultural level, sport becomes one of the agents of socialisation that people use to determine and express their personal interpretation of gender. The social construction of gender and its impact on access to sport (cont.)

Cambridge University Press © Kiss, Kleoudis, Rasi, Stewart and Johnston 2010 Figueroa’s framework allows us to explore cultural reasons as to why certain ethnic or socioeconomic classes of people are or are not participating in certain sports and activities. Generalisations within society lead to common assumptions about sport that often go unquestioned. That is, boys and girls are categorised or assumed into sports as according to their sex and gender. It is the cultural influence of gender stereotypes that guides males and females towards these sports rather than their psychological disposition. Common assumptions about sport and exercise in Australia

Cambridge University Press © Kiss, Kleoudis, Rasi, Stewart and Johnston 2010 Assumptions are made about people according to their gender, class structure and ethnicity in regards to sport participation. A common assumption held by egalitarians of society is that sport is a level playing field where all participants are part of an environment free of society’s inequities and injustices. However, in reality it has been shown that sport is a microcosm of society and burdened with the same problems. Male cultural domination (patriarchal) of sport in Australia affects all participation in sport. Common assumptions about sport and exercise in Australia (cont.)

Cambridge University Press © Kiss, Kleoudis, Rasi, Stewart and Johnston 2010 Media is the most influential agent of social change in society. Role models become very influential at the personal level and the cultural level of Figueroa’s framework. Young people are influenced in part by images of sport as portrayed by the media and how they identify with them as an expression of their own masculinity. Media influence and the evolution of culture

Cambridge University Press © Kiss, Kleoudis, Rasi, Stewart and Johnston 2010 Media provides us with selected information, interpretation and entertainment and connects us to parts of the world, which enables us to construct our version of that world. As individuals we construct our sense of reality in the process. In this way, the media heavily influences what we think about and in turn contributes to the shaping of our values, beliefs and attitudes towards sport and physical activity participation. Media influence and the evolution of culture (cont.)

Cambridge University Press © Kiss, Kleoudis, Rasi, Stewart and Johnston 2010 Australia is a country that is obsessed with sport mainly due to the massive exposure and support it gets in the media. This is vindicated with our nation’s success on the global stage. Due to the popularity of sport, Australians are strongly influenced at the cultural level of Figueroa’s framework to believe that sport is important and, therefore, value it highly. This leads to participation by choice in three ways: a preference for parents to place their children in sport viewing as live spectators at events to watch sport from home. Nationalism and the impact on sport participation

Cambridge University Press © Kiss, Kleoudis, Rasi, Stewart and Johnston 2010 Sport engenders an extreme sense of pride in one’s country. Examples of national success that has instilled national pride for all Australians: 1932–33 Australia vs England Cricket Bodyline series 1983 – Australia’s victory over USA in America’s Cup (yachting) Australian Davis Cup victories and other tennis tournaments Olympics World Cup Football qualification/participation. Nationalism and the impact on sport participation (cont.)