Psychology in Action (8e) PowerPoint  Lecture Notes Presentation Chapter 1: Introduction and Research Methods

Intro Our intuition is often wrong when it comes to physical reality If you drop a bullet off a table 3 feet high, and fire another one straight across an empty football field, which hits the ground first?

Intro We are all amateur psychologists, suggested Fritz Heider, who attempted to explain others’ behavior. That need for a coherent world, however, sometimes leads to error. There are limits to intuition and common sense It is surprising that just a few minutes after seeing the effect scene, people would reliably claim to have seen the cause scene.

Intro We tend to believe that we can accurately remember what we saw just a few minutes ago. Memory for pictures tends to be more accurate than memory for words. We put a lot of confidence in things that we have seen with our own eyes.

Intro Application to eyewitness testimony in the courtroom is clear. Typically, cases go to trial many months after the events occur, very likely making eyewitnesses more vulnerable to inference-based errors. Misremembering the causes of others’ behavior over long periods may also foster conflict in social relationships.

Intro Importantly, the research indicated that causal-inference errors were common in a backward but not a forward direction. That is, exposure to “effect” pictures caused illusory memories of seeing “cause” pictures, but exposure to “cause” pictures did not produce false memories of seeing “effect” pictures. The researchers speculate that there is a stronger need to answer “Why?” than to answer “What would happen if . . . ?”

Hindsight Bias I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon Is the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. Finding out that something has happened makes it seem inevitable. Thus, after learning the results of a study in psychology, it may seem to be obvious common sense.

However……….. Experiments have found that events seem far less obvious and predictable beforehand than in hindsight. Sometimes psychological findings even jolt our common sense.

Overconfidence The Confirmation Bias: Overconfidence stems partly from our tendency to search for information that confirms our preconceptions. Our everyday thinking is limited by our tendency to think we know more than we do. Asked how sure we are of our answers to factual questions, we tend to be more confident than correct. Despite lackluster predictions, the overconfidence of experts is hard to dislodge.

Overconfidence It is really intellectual conceit!!! The Psychic: ESP……….

Scientific attitude encourages critical thinking Scientific attitude reflects a hard-headed curiosity to explore and understand the world without being fooled by it. Critical thinking: examine assumptions, discern hidden values, evaluate evidence, and assess conclusions.

Scientific attitude encourages critical thinking Randolph A. Smith’s Challenging Your Preconceptions: Thinking Critically About Psychology: Guidelines for critical thinking…

Scientific attitude encourages critical thinking Smith’s Guidelines for critical thinking… Critical thinkers are open-minded. They can live with uncertainty and ambiguity. Critical thinkers are able to identify inherent biases and assumptions. They know that people’s beliefs and experiences shape the way they view and interpret their worlds.

Scientific attitude encourages critical thinking Smith’s Guidelines for critical thinking… Critical thinkers practice an attitude of skepticism. They have trained themselves to question the statements and claims of even those people they respect. They are ready to reexamine their own ideas. Critical thinkers distinguish facts from opinions. They recognize the need to rely on scientific evidence rather than personal experience.

Scientific attitude encourages critical thinking Smith’s Guidelines for critical thinking… Critical thinkers don’t oversimplify. They realize the world is complex and there may be multiple causes for behavior. Critical thinkers use the processes of logical inference. They carefully examine the information given and recognize inconsistencies in statements and conclusions.

Scientific attitude encourages critical thinking Smith’s Guidelines for critical thinking… Critical thinkers review all the available evidence before reaching a conclusion. They will consult diverse sources of information and consider a variety of positions before making a judgment.

Introducing Psychology What is Psychology? The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. Psychology focuses on critical thinking and is scientific. Pseudopsychologies (e.g., psychics, mediums) are nonscientific.

Introducing Psychology: Psychology’s Four Goals Description: tells “what” occurred Explanation: tells “why” a behavior or mental process occurred Prediction: identifies conditions “under which a future behavior or mental process is likely to occur” Change: applies psychological knowledge to prevent unwanted behavior or to bring about desired goals

Introducing Psychology: Applying Psychology to Work (Sample Specialties) Biopsychology/ neuroscience Clinical and Counseling psychology Cognitive psychology

Introducing Psychology: Applying Psychology to Work (Sample Specialties) Developmental psychology Educational and School psychology Experimental psychology

Applying Psychology to Work (Sample Specialties Continued) Forensic psychology Gender/Cultural psychology Health psychology Industrial/Organizational psychology Social Psychology

Origins of Psychology Wilhelm Wundt: “father of psychology” Structuralism: sought to identify the basic building blocks, or structures, of the mind through introspection (Wundt and Titchener key leaders) Functionalism: studied how the mind functions to adapt organisms to their environment (James key leader)

Origins of Psychology (Continued) Psychoanalytic/ psychodynamic perspective: unconscious processes and unresolved past conflicts (Freud was the founder)

Origins of Psychology (Continued) Behavior perspective: objective, observable environmental influences on overt behavior (Watson, Pavlov, and Skinner were leaders)

Origins of Psychology (Continued) Humanist perspective: free will, self-actualization, and a positive, growth-seeking human nature (Rogers and Maslow were key figures) + =

Origins of Psychology (Continued) Cognitive perspective: thought, perception, and information processing

Origins of Psychology (Continued) Neuroscience/ Biopsychology perspective: genetics and other biological processes in the brain and other parts of the nervous system

Origins of Psychology (Continued) Evolutionary: natural selection, adaptation, and evolution Sociocultural: social interaction and cultural determinants

Origins of Psychology: One Unifying Theme of Modern Psychology Biopsychosocial Model: an integrative model combining the seven major perspectives

Why Do Psychologists and Other Scientists Need Multiple Perspectives Why Do Psychologists and Other Scientists Need Multiple Perspectives? Do You See a Vase or Two Faces?

The Science of Psychology Psychological research can be either: Basic: conducted to advance scientific knowledge or Applied: designed to solve practical problems

Is This Basic or Applied Research?

The Science of Psychology: The Scientific Method

The Science of Psychology: Ethical Guidelines Key Issues for Human Research Participants: Informed consent Voluntary participation Restricted use of deception Debriefing Confidentiality Alternative activities

The Science of Psychology: Research Methods Four Major Research Methods: Experimental Descriptive Correlational Biological

The Science of Psychology: Four Major Research Methods (Continued)

The Science of Psychology: Four Major Research Methods (Continued) 1. Experimental Research: carefully controlled scientific procedure that manipulates variables to determine cause and effect

The Science of Psychology: Research Methods—Experiment (Continued) Key Features of an Experiment: Independent variable (factor that is manipulated) versus dependent variable (factor that is measured) Experimental group (receives treatment) versus control group (receives no treatment)

The Science of Psychology: Research Methods—Experiment (Continued) Does TV increase aggression? Only an experiment can determine cause and effect.

The Science of Psychology: Research Methods—Experiment (Continued) Potential Researcher Problems: Experimenter Bias (researcher influences the research results in the expected direction) Ethnocentrism (believing one's culture is typical of all cultures)

The Science of Psychology: Research Methods—Experiment (Continued) Potential Participant Problems: Sample Bias (research participants are unrepresentative of the larger population) Participant Bias (research participants are influenced by the researcher or experimental conditions)

The Science of Psychology: Research Methods—Experiment (Continued)

The Science of Psychology: Research Methods—Descriptive Research 2. Descriptive Research: observes and records behavior without producing causal explanations Three Types of Descriptive Research: Naturalistic Observation--observation and recording of behavior in natural state or habitat Survey--assessment of a sample or population Case Study--in-depth study of a single participant

Why Study Psychology? You Can Now Understand the Underlying Humor of This Cartoon?

The Science of Psychology: Research Methods—Correlational Research scientific study in which the researcher observes or measures (without directly manipulating) two or more variables to find relationships between them

The Science of Psychology: Research Methods—Correlational Research Positive correlation: two variables move (or vary) in the same direction—either up or down

The Science of Psychology: Research Methods—Correlational Research Negative Correlation: two variables move (or vary) in the opposite direction—either up or down

The Science of Psychology: Research Methods—Correlational Research Zero correlation: no relationship between two variables (When one variable increases, the other can increase, decrease, or stay the same)

The Science of Psychology: Research Methods—Correlational Research

The Science of Psychology: Research Methods—Correlational Research This is why correlation can never show cause and effect.

Illusory Correlation The perception of a relationship where none exists, often occurs because our belief that a relationship exists leads us to notice and recall confirming instances of that belief. Because we are sensitive to unusual events, we are especially likely to notice and remember the occurrence of two such events in sequence, for example, a premonition of an unlikely phone call followed by the call.

Given even random data, we look for meaningful patterns Given even random data, we look for meaningful patterns. We usually find order because random sequences often don’t look random. Apparent patterns and streaks (such as repeating digits) occur more often than people expect. Failing to see random occurrences for what they are can lead us to seek extraordinary explanations for ordinary events.

Failure to take into account all the relevant information also helps explain certain common misconceptions: (1) because more accidents occur at home than elsewhere, we may believe it’s more dangerous to be at home, and (2) because more violence is committed against members of one’s own family than against anyone else, we may conclude it is more dangerous to be around family members than around strangers.

The problem is that we spend more time at home than any other place and we are also around our relatives more than anyone else. Similarly, finding that more automobile accidents occur during rush hour than at any other time does not necessarily imply that it’s more dangerous to drive during rush hour. It could be, but the greater number of accidents may also occur simply because that’s when so many people are driving their cars. From sheer numbers alone, far more windshield wipers are turned on during rush hour than during any other time but that does not mean that it rains more during rush hour.

Perceiving Order in Random Events What may seem to be an extraordinary event may have a chance-related explanation. As Myers states, “An event that happens to but one in 1 billion people every day occurs about six times a day, 2000 times a year.”

Perceiving Order in Random Events Random sequences often do not look random. E.g., coin tosses, number occurrences When you don’t seem to think this coin toss or string of numbers in the lotto is a chance event. And that is what’s known as the gambler’s fallacy.”

The Science of Psychology: Research Methods—Biological Research 4. Biological Research: scientific study of the brain and other parts of the nervous system

Tools for Student Success

Tools for Student Success (Continued) Four Major Tools: Active Reading (SQ4R technique) Time Management (setting up a realistic schedule) Grade Improvement (note taking, study habits, test taking tips) Additional Resources (instructors, classmates, study groups, etc.)

Five Effective Study Techniques To master information, one must actively process it. People learn and remember material best when they put it in their own words, rehearse it, and then review and rehearse it again.

SQ3R Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review, SQ3R is a study method that encourages active processing of new information. Distributing study time, listening actively in class, overlearning, focusing on big ideas, and being a smart test-taker will also boost learning and performance.

Tools for Student Success: The Need for Active Reading Can you identify the real U.S. penny?

Tools for Student Success: The Importance of Time Management