Descriptive Research

Observation: Can you see the behavior? Is it a sensitive topic? Do you have a lot of time? Do you know what you are looking for?

Natural Observation No intervention - behavior as it normally occurs useful for external validity or if ethical concerns about manipulation e.g book carrying example Type or both arms around books short edges on hip Type 11- one arm at side long edges horizontal to the ground 82% type 1 female 3% male 96% type 11 male 16% female

Observation with intervention - may cause an event that is rare or normally hard to see - investigate the change in response with stimulus - establish link between antecedent and consequent behaviors - manipulate independent variable. Eg Simon and Levin - change blindness Crusco & Wetzel - waitress touch and tip

Participant Observation - disguised or undisguised - takes part in the behavior and reports on it (journalist and anthropology) eg Rosenhan - sane in insane places Festinger - cognitive dissonance

Problems -observer can lose objectivity because they are part of the event -subject reactivity if known observation (eg stop sign observation) - subject demand characteristics - participating may change the event and the outcomes for others - natural hazards for field work

Bias always a possibility - observe what you want & fulfill expectations eg stop observing when nothing happens so over-report activity - may change criteria with time - boredom or fatigue impact - delay in transcribing may not be exact record

Solutions Unobtrusive or disguised observation - or trace information Habituation to group helps reactivity ‘Blind’ scoring helps bias Short sessions helps fatigue

Structured Observation Situation is set up and then participants enter more controlled environment -often clinical or developmental lab setting one way mirror videos. Eg Piaget Field Experiments Manipulate IV in natural setting eg leopard and chimp

Record what?? Goal is to describe behavior as fully and accurately as possible Need to use samples of behavior - cannot record everything. Typically use 1) checklist of predetermined behaviors (eg Bobo) 2) qualitative narrative 3) quantitative event counts ratings.

Time Sampling Choose time intervals to record behavior - systematic, random or both eg observe children in 2 hours in morning class may not generalize to whole day so 4 sessions of 30 minutes spread across day better or 30 minutes randomly chosen

Event Sampling If event infrequent or long then time sampling not good -could miss all or part of behavior So record how often predetermined behavior occurs eg response to unpredictable events cannot know when they will occur so timing will miss eg newcomer to class

Situation Sampling To improve external validity observe in different locations, conditions etc eg animals in captivity or wild children at home or school Subject Sampling If there are many subjects may need to select some for observation

Observer Reliability use more than one observer and check inter-observer reliability - correlation Improves with clear definitions and training % time agreement == 100 * number of agreement/ number of opportunities

Quantitative Measures Typically nominal scale (categories counted) eg book carrying example Rating common Interval and ratio less common personal space duration

Survey research Mail survey - quick efficient convenient - no response bias a problem (60% + response acceptable 30% typical) - participants answer in any order Written questionnaires generally need to be self- explanatory and short

Written Questionnaire - simple questions best - be specific - no double questions (eg have you experienced headache and nausea in last week?) - no double negatives ( if you have not had no headaches in last week….) - no ambiguous questions - no leading questions - short - readable - order can matter general to specific is usually best

Often rank scale Likert scale 1-7 Specific categories best Do you get headaches frequently rarely etc… better choice headaches times a week people may define terms like rare or often differently

Interviews More open ended complex questions and follow up questions possible Order of questions controlled phone - relatively easy but no-response bias and selection problems (unlisted numbers etc) in person- very time consuming and expensive Problems recording bias and leading questions

Designs Cross sectional design one or more samples drawn at same time Independent samples successive same survey different times eg presidential approval rating Longitudinal same respondents surveyed over time huge effort to track people