What is Development? Systematic changes and continuities –In the individual –Between conception and death “Womb to Tomb” Three broad domains –Physical, Cognitive, Psychosocial

Other Developmental Definitions Growth: Physical changes that occur from birth to maturity Aging: Positive and negative changes in the mature organism Maturation: The biological unfolding of the individual genetic plan Learning: Relatively permanent changes due to environmental experiences

Age Grades, Age Norms, and the Social Clock Age Grade: Socially defined age groups –Statuses, roles, privileges, responsibilities –Adults can vote, children can’t Age Norms: Behavioral expectations by age –Children attend school Social Clock: When things should be done –Early adulthood – time for 1 st marriages “Off time” experiences are more difficult

Life-Span Phases in Historical Context Only two phases: Childhood & Adulthood 1600: Children viewed as miniature adults Modern view: innocence, need protection Average life expectancy in 1900: 49 yrs –Females} White:80 yrs, Black:75 yrs –Males} White:75 yrs, Black 68 yrs –Increasing population of age 65+

Framing the Nature/Nurture Issue Nature: heredity –Maturational processes guided by genes –Biologically based predispositions –Biological unfolding of genes Nurture: environment –Learning: experiences cause changes is thoughts, feelings, and behaviors Interactionist view: nature & nurture interact

Figure 1.1

Methods of Studying Life-Span Development Historical –Baby Biographies: Charles Darwin –Questionnaires: G. Stanley Hall Key Assumptions of Modern Life-Span Perspectives –Lifelong, multidirectional process –Gain and loss and lifelong plasticity –Historical/cultural contexts, multiple influences –Multi-disciplinary studies

HOW IS RESEARCH CONDUCTED The Scientific Method Theory- a set of concepts and propositions intended to describe and explain some aspect of behavior Hypothesis- specific prediction regarding a particular set of observations Sample Selection Random Sample- a sample formed by identifying all members of the larger population and then, by random means, selecting a portion of that population to study.

Conducting Developmental Research Self-reports: interview, questionnaires, tests Behavioral Observations –Naturalistic Advantage: natural setting Disadvantage: conditions not controlled –Structured (Lab) Disadvantage: cannot generalize to natural settings Advantage: conditions controlled

Figure 1.2

The Correlational Method Determine if 2 or more variables are related Correlation: A measure of the relationship –Can range from +1.0 to –1.0 –Positive: variables move in same direction –Negative: variables move in opposite dir. No relationship if correlation is 0 Cannot establish a causal relationship

Figure 1.3

The Experimental Method Three Critical Features –1. Manipulation of independent variable –2. Random assignment of individuals to treatment conditions –3. Experimental control Quasi-Experiment: No random assignment

THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD Some aspect of the environment is manipulated or altered to see how this affects the behavior of the sample of individuals being investigated. Independent Variable: variable in the experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter Dependent Variable: variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of the subjects in the experiment Random Assignment: researchers assign participants to the experimental and control groups by chance Advantage Establishes cause Disadvantages Generalize to the real world Ethical considerations

DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS Cross-sectional design- performances of people of different age groups, or cohorts are compared. Looks at age differences Longitudinal design- the performance of one cohort of individuals is assessed repeatedly over time. Looks at age changes Sequential design- combines the cross- sectional and longitudinal approach in one study

Figure 1.4

Age, Cohort, and Time of Measurement Effects Age effects: Changes which occur due to age Cohort Effects: Born in one historical context –Changes due to differences in society –Disadvantage of cross-sectional design Time of measurement effects: Historical –Take place at time of data collection –Disadvantage of longitudinal design

Sequential Designs A combination of cross-sectional and longitudinal designs Advantages of both designs Gives information about –Which age-related trends are age effects? –Which age-related trends are truly cohort effects? –Which age-related trends are a result of historical events?

Figure 1.6

Protecting the Rights of Participants Risk to benefit balance of the research Researcher responsibilities –Informed consent –Debriefing –Protection from harm –Confidentiality

Sources of Change * Normative Age Graded Influences highly similar across individuals/cultures often biological relevant to early development * Normative History Grade Influences forces unique to a period in history * Non-normative Influences unique to the individual

The Ecology of Human Development Bronfenbrenner: Bioecological Model –How nature and nurture interact to produce development The biological, psychological, person Four environmental systems –Microsystem: family, school, work –Mesosystem: interactions among microsystems –Exosystem: society –Macrosystem: culture