Social Psychology Social Cognition

Person Perception Effects of Physical Appearance Effects of Physical Appearance First Impressions First Impressions –Asch 1946 Cognitive Schemata Cognitive Schemata –implicit theories of personality Stereotypes Stereotypes –illusory correlation –prejudice –discrimination

Attributions inferences that people draw about the causes of: inferences that people draw about the causes of: –events; –the behaviour of others; –their own behaviour more likely if: more likely if: –event unusual –event has personal consequences –people behave unexpectedly –when asked

Types of Attributions Fritz Heider (1958) Fritz Heider (1958) internal (dispositional) attribution internal (dispositional) attribution –attribute cause of behaviour to personal dispositions, traits, abilities, and feelings external (situational) attribution external (situational) attribution –attribute cause of behaviour to situational demands or environmental constraints

Kelley’s Model actors/observers actors/observers consistency consistency –across time distinctiveness distinctiveness –across situations consensus consensus –across people

Kelley’s Predictions high consistency, high distinctiveness, high consensus  high consistency, high distinctiveness, high consensus  –attribute cause to situation

Kelley’s Predictions high consistency, low distinctiveness, low consensus  high consistency, low distinctiveness, low consensus  –attribute cause to person

Attributions for Success & Failure model by Weiner model by Weiner two dimensions two dimensions –internal/external –stability  stable/unstable

Internal Cause External Cause Stability Dimension Internal-External Dimension Unstable/TemporaryStable/Permanent Effort Mood Fatigue Luck Chance Opportunity Ability Intelligence Task Difficulty Weiner’s Model

Biases in Attribution Fundamental Attribution Error Fundamental Attribution Error –Ross, 1977 Actor-Observer Bias Actor-Observer Bias –cognitive explanation –perceptual explanation Self-Serving Bias Self-Serving Bias –cognitive explanation –motivational explanation Defensive Attribution Defensive Attribution –“Just-world” theory

Impression Management Self-Handicapping Self-Handicapping –“man with wooden leg”  Adlerian defense mechanism

Attitudes a relatively stable, positive or negative evaluative reaction toward a person, action, object, or concept a relatively stable, positive or negative evaluative reaction toward a person, action, object, or concept

Components of Attitudes Positive Attitude Towards Gun Control cognitive component Gun owners end up shooting themselves more often then they shoot thieves. affective component behavioural component Guns make me sick. I vote for gun-control advocates

Attitudes measurement measurement –Likert scales Attitudes and Behaviour –LaPiere’s (1934) findings –need to take into account  situational pressures  Ajzen & Fishbein  specificity of attitude

Correlation Between Willingness to Join or Work for Sierra Club and Various Measures Related of Attitude Based on Weigel et al., (1974)

Attitude Change Persuasive Communications Persuasive Communications –Message Source  credibility/expertise –antihistamine recommendations –poetry evaluation  trustworthiness  physical attractiveness

Persuasive Communications Message Content Message Content –fear arousal -inverted “U” function

Ruiter, R. A. C. et al. Health Educ. Res : ; doi: /her/ Attitude toward BSE as function of reported fear and argument strength

Persuasive Communications Message Content Message Content –one-sided vs. two-sided arguments

Persuasive Communications Recipient Recipient –early research  self-esteem –competence –involvement –initial position  latitude of acceptance –forewarning

Theories of Attitude Change Learning Theory Learning Theory –classical conditioning  (emotional component) UCR (positive emotion) UCS (Jerry Seinfeld) NS (American Express Card) CR (positive emotion) CS (American Express Card)

Theories of Attitude Change Learning Theory (con’t) Learning Theory (con’t) –operant conditioning  belief component –social learning theory  belief &/or behavioural component

Theories of Attitude Change Balance Theory Balance Theory –Fritz Heider (1940s)

Theories of Attitude Change Cognitive Dissonance Cognitive Dissonance

Cognitive Dissonance Theory Festinger & Carlsmith (1959) Festinger & Carlsmith (1959)

Other Aspects of Dissonance Theory Post-Decision Dissonance Post-Decision Dissonance Justification of Effort Justification of Effort –Aronson & Mills (1959)

Cognitive Dissonance and Compliance Robert Cialdini Robert Cialdini –Four-Walls Technique –Low-Ball Technique –Foot-in-the-Door Technique  Freddman & Fraser, 1966

Reciprocity and Compliance Door-in-the-Face Technique Door-in-the-Face Technique

Social Influences on Behaviour

Field Theory Kurt Lewin ( ) Kurt Lewin ( )  Gestalt psychology

Social Impact Theory Latané, 1981 Latané, 1981 social impact is any detectable effect that occurs in a person a a result of a social force social impact is any detectable effect that occurs in a person a a result of a social force impact of social force function of: impact of social force function of: –strength of source –immediacy of source –number of sources  multiplication of social impact - number of targets diffusion of social impact

Stage Fright Study (Latané)

Compliance social impact theory social impact theory –comply when…. peripheral processing of requests peripheral processing of requests –Langer’s photocopier study

Social Facilitation & Inhibition Triplett’s (1898) findings Triplett’s (1898) findings other research other research Zajonc’s (1965) theory Zajonc’s (1965) theory

Conformity Asch’s (1955) study Asch’s (1955) study approximately 70-75% conform on at least one trialapproximately 70-75% conform on at least one trial 37% compliance across all trials37% compliance across all trials

Factors Influencing Conformity Group Size Group Size  Support From Others  Gender Differences

Obedience Stanley Milgram (1960s) Stanley Milgram (1960s)

Experimental Set-up one “subject” assigned to role of “learner” “teacher” provides punishment for errors

Milgram -Results 65% obeyed completely

Factors Influencing Obedience proximity of authority proximity of authority legitimacy of authority figure legitimacy of authority figure remoteness of victim remoteness of victim presence of role models presence of role models Ethical Issues deception deception high levels of stress high levels of stress debriefing debriefing real life analogues real life analogues  Hofling et al. (1966)  “Officer Scott”

Norms learned, socially based rules that prescribe what people should (or should not) do in different situations learned, socially based rules that prescribe what people should (or should not) do in different situations Institutional Norms: implicit or explicit rules for behaviour and beliefs that are applied to entire institutions or organizations implicit or explicit rules for behaviour and beliefs that are applied to entire institutions or organizations institutionalization institutionalization Stanford Prison Study Stanford Prison Study –Zimbardo (1972)

Bystander Intervention Kitty Genovese Kitty Genovese –New York, 1964

Bystander Intervention Latané & Darley Latané & Darley

Possible Explanations  Information Influence of Others’ Inaction  Normative Influence of Others’ Inaction & Evaluation Anxiety  Diffusion of Responsibility

Deciding to Intervene Start Do Not Notice Do Not Help Not An Emergency Do Not Help Define As Emergency I Am Not Responsible Do Not Help Help Take Responsibility Notice